双语矩阵论课程笔记（2）—— 【chapter 1】 Vector Spaces (Linear Spaces)

• 双语矩阵论课程笔记

---

1. Definitions and Examples

1.1 Number filed（数域）

• A number filed F is a set of numbers containing at least 0 and 1 and is closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, which means following properties are satisfied：
  $$\begin{array}{rlrl}& \forall a\in F& & ,-a\in F\\ & \forall b\in F,b\ne 0& & ,b^{-1}\in F\\ & \forall a,b\in F& & ,a+b\in F,\\ & \forall a,b\in F& & ,a\cdot b\in F\end{array}$$
• for example, the real number filed R（实数域） is a number filed, it contains real number 0 and 1, and closed under arithmetic（对四则运算封闭）
• 域、群、环等概念，其实都是具有一些好的性质的集合。数域是针对数的域，其元素是实数、复数、有理数等等各种数

1.2 Algebraic systems（代数系统）

• An algebraic system is usually referred to as a set in which some operation together with some rules are defined. To describe an algebraic system, we need

  1. a set of elements（Given）
  2. operations（Well Defined）
  3. rules of operation（deduced）

• note：

  1. the elements in the set can be anything，number、function、matrix…
  2. well defined means the result of any operation is unique. You can view the operation as a mapping, and well define means that any element can only be mapped to a unique element
  3. with the rules of operation, we can deduce the properties of the algebraic system

• examples：Pay attention to example 4 and example 5, the set of them is set of function, so the addition operation represented as $(f+g)(x)$
  

  

1.3 Linear space / Vector space（线性空间 / 向量空间）

1.3.1 Definition

• Linear space/vector space：A set $V\text{V}V(V\text{V}V\ne \varnothing )$ over a number filed $F\text{F}F$ is a set of elements together with two operations, addition(加法) and and scalar multiplication(数乘), if $V\text{V}V$ satisfies the following conditions, it’s a linear space/vector space

  1. closure properties（封闭性）：

     1. $\forall \alpha ,\beta \in V\text{V}V,\alpha +\beta \in V\text{V}V$ is unique
     2. $\forall k\in F\text{F}F,\alpha \in V\text{V}V,k\cdot \alpha \in V\text{V}V$ is unique
        
        说明：这里的加法运算 addition 没有什么要求，可以定义任意 $V\text{V}V$ 上的运算作为 “addition”，但是数乘运算 scalar multiplication 要求必须是从数域 $F\text{F}F$ 中取一个数和 $V\text{V}V$ 中元素做数乘，Linear space $V\text{V}V$ over a filed $F\text{F}F$ 指的就是这个。封闭性要求这两个运算的结果都在 $V\text{V}V$ 中

  2. The addition axioms（加法公理）：
     

  3. The scalar multiplication axioms（乘法公理）：
     

• 特殊元素：

  元素	性质
  加法零元 (zero element) （$0\text{0}0\in V\text{V}V$）	$\forall \alpha \in V\text{V}V,0\text{0}0+\alpha =\alpha$
  加法负元 (additive inverse)（$-\alpha \in V\text{V}V$）	$\forall \alpha \in V\text{V}V$，$\exists -\alpha \in V\text{V}V$，S.t. $\alpha +(-\alpha )=0\text{0}0$
  乘法幺元 (unit element)（ $1\in F\text{F}F$ ）	$\forall \alpha \in V\text{V}V,1\cdot \alpha =\alpha$

1.3.2 Remark on Linear space

• Important things to remember：In the definition of linear linear space, we need

  1. a set $V\text{V}V\ne \varnothing$
  2. a number filed $F\text{F}F$
  3. two operations (addition & scalar multiplication; well-defined and closed)
  4. eight operation rules

  when you do scalar multiplication, the scalar must come from the filed $F\text{F}F$

• there are some rules derived from the definition：If $V\text{V}V$ is a linear space over the filed $F\text{F}F$, and $\alpha \in V\text{V}V,k\in F\text{F}F$，then

  1. $0\text{0}0$ is unique
  2. $0\cdot \alpha =0\text{0}0$
  3. $k\cdot 0\text{0}0=0\text{0}0$
  4. $\alpha +\beta =0\text{0}0\Rightarrow \beta =-\alpha$（i.e. the addition inverse is unique）
  5. $(-1)\cdot \alpha =-\alpha$
  6. $k\cdot \alpha =0\text{0}0,k\in F\text{F}F,\alpha \in V\text{V}V\Rightarrow k=0or\alpha =0\text{0}0$

• 证明一下第2条
  $$\begin{array}{rl}& \because 0\cdot \alpha +(-0\cdot \alpha )=(0+(-0))\cdot \alpha =(-0)\cdot \alpha \\ & \therefore 0\cdot \alpha +(-0\cdot \alpha )+(-(-0\cdot \alpha ))=(-0\cdot \alpha )+(-(-0\cdot \alpha ))\\ & \therefore 0\cdot \alpha +0\text{0}0=0\text{0}0\\ & \therefore 0\cdot \alpha =0\text{0}0\end{array}$$

1.3.3 Verify a linear space

• How to verify a linear space?
  1. Find out the number field F and the set V
  2. What are the two operations?
  3. satisfy the Closure property?
  4. satisfy the 8 rules?
• Example 1
  
• Example 2：$c[a.b]$ is a set of continuous functions on interval [a,b], is it a linear space ?
  

2. Linear Dependence and Independence（线性相关和线性无关）

2.1 Basic concept

2.1.1 Linear combinations of vectors（线性组合）

• $V\text{V}V$ is a linear space over $F\text{F}F$, there are $\{\begin{array}{r}{\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_n\in V\text{V}V\\ k_1,k_2,...,k_n\in F\text{F}F\end{array}$, a linear combination(线性组合) of ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_n$ is
  $$k_1{\alpha }_1+k_2{\alpha }_2+...+k_n{\alpha }_n$$

2.1.2 linearly represented（线性表示）

• Given two elements groups $\{\begin{array}{r}(\mathrm{I}):{\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_n\in V\text{V}V\\ (\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}):{\beta }_1,{\beta }_2,...,{\beta }_s\in V\text{V}V\end{array}$, if each element in group $(\mathrm{I})$ is a combination of group $(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I})$, we call the former can be linearly represented(线性表示) by the later.
• If two groups can be represented by each other, they are called equivalent(相抵/等价), which is
  1. reflexive（有自反性：自己和自己等价）
  2. symmetric（有对称性：$(\mathrm{I})$ 和 $(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I})$ 等价 $\Rightarrow$ $(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I})$ 和 $(\mathrm{I})$ 等价）
  3. transitive（有传递性：$(\mathrm{I})$ 和 $(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I})$ 等价，$(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I})$ 和 $(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I})$ 等价 $\Rightarrow$ $(\mathrm{I})$ 和 $(\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I}\mathrm{I})$ 等价）

2.1.3 linear dependence and Independence（线性相关和线性无关）

• 有一组不全为0的系数 $k$ 使得向量组 $\alpha$ 的线性组合为零向量 $0\text{0}0$，则向量组 $\alpha$ 线性相关，反之线性无关
  
• 注意：线性空间 $V\text{V}V$ 中的元素不一定是向量，也可能是数、抽象函数…等等，因为它本质是一种特殊的 Algebraic systems 代数系统。后面3.2.1节中，我们会说明这些元素和通常意义上的向量有一一对应关系，因此习惯上称这些元素 $\alpha \in V\text{V}V$ 为向量（vector）

2.2 Theorem and corollary

• Theorems：
  1. Suppose that $V\text{V}V$ is a linear space over $P$. A group of elements ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_r(r\ge 2)$ are linear dependent if and only if there is at least one element that can be written as a linear combination of the others
     若线性相关，则至少有一个向量可以被其他的线性表出
  2. Suppose that ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_r$ are linearly independent and can be linearly represented by ${\beta }_1,{\beta }_2,...,{\beta }_s$, then $r\le s$
     一组线性无关向量，只能被数目多于等于它的另一组向量线性表出
  3. Assume that ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_r$ are linearly independent, while ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_r,\beta$ are linearly dependent, then $\beta$ can be uniquely and linearly represented by ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_r$
     一组线性无关的向量，增加一个之后变得线性相关了，多出的一定可以被其他的线性表出
• corollary：
  1. The number of elements in two equivalent linear independence element groups are same
     两个等价向量组中向量个数相等
• examples
  
  • 欲证明某向量组线性无关或相关，可使用定义法，先写出 ${\sum }_i^n{k}_i{\alpha }_i=0$ 的形式，再说明 $k_i$ 是否一定全为 0
  • 关于向量组线性相关性的更多性质和证明方法，请参考：线性代数（4）—— 向量与向量组的线性相关性

3. Basis and Dimension（基和维数）

3.1 Dimension（维数）

• Definition: If there are n vectors in $V\text{V}V$ are linearly independent and arbitrary n+1 vectors in $V\text{V}V$ are linearly dependent, we call the dimension(维数) of $V\text{V}V$ is n, denoted by $\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}(V)=n$
• special case that the dimension equals to 0 and $\infty$
  1. If V = { 0 } , t h e n   d i m ( V ) = 0 V=\{\pmb{0}\}, then\space \mathrm{dim}(V) = 0 V={000},then dim(V)=0
  2. If there are $m$ linearly independent vectors in $V\text{V}V$ for any integer $m$, we call $V\text{V}V$ is infinity dimensional, denoted by $\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}(V)=+\infty$. For example：实多项式集合
     

3.2 Basis and coordinate（基和坐标）

3.2.1 Definition

• Suppose that $V\text{V}V$ is an n-dimensional linear space, if ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ is a linearly independent vector group in $V\text{V}V$, it is a basis(基，复数形式为bases) of $V\text{V}V$
• $\forall \alpha \in V\text{V}V$ can be uniquely linearly represented by the basis ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ that is
  
  where the coefficients（系数） $x_1,x_2,...,x_n$ are called coordinates(坐标) over the basis ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$, denoted by $(x_1,x_2,...,x_n)$ or $(x_1,x_2,...,x_n{)}^{\top }$
• 注意，这里的 coordinates 是由 $F\text{F}F$ 中的数组成的向量，因此 linear space $V\text{V}V$ 中的任意一个元素都能通过一组 basis 唯一地映射为一个 vector（有一一对应关系）， 这就是为什么 linear space 也叫做 vector space

3.2.2 Remark on basis

1. Bases for a linear space are not unique.
   线性空间的基不唯一
   • For example, the set of cubic polynomials（三次多项式集合）$P_4$ has a basis $1,x,x^2,x^3$, we know this basis can be linearly represented by $1,2x,3x^2,4x^3$, so that $1,2x,3x^2,4x^3$ is also a basis of $P_4$
2. All bases for a linear space have the same number of elements (i.e. $\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}(V)$)
   同一线性空间的所有基，维数一致
3. If ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ is a linearly independent vector group in $V\text{V}V$, and any vector in $V\text{V}V$ can be uniquely linearly represented by it, then ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ is a basis of $V\text{V}V$
   如果一组线性无关向量可以线性表示Linear space中的所有向量，则它是一组基
   1. 根据2，求线性空间维数，等价于找到线性空间的一组基向量；根据3，求一组基向量，可以先找到一组向量，证明其线性无关，并且能唯一地表示空间中任意向量。2,3两者结合就能求出线性空间的维数

3.3.3 Transition Matrix（过渡矩阵）

• Suppose that vector group ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ is a basis of linear space $V\text{V}V$，${\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }$ are n vectors in $V\text{V}V$，then there exists a matrix $T\text{T}T\in P^{n\times n}$ such that
  $$({\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime })=({\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n)T\text{T}T$$ As mentioned above, the column vectors of $T\text{T}T$ are the coordinates of vectors${\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }$ over the basis ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$
• $T\text{T}T$ is reversible(可逆的) $\iff$ ${\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }$ is also a basis of $V\text{V}V$, cause
  $$({\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }){T\text{T}T}^{-1}=({\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n)$$ the basis ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ can be linear represented by ${\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }$
• Especially, when both ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ and ${\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }$ are basis of $V\text{V}V$, the matrix $T\text{T}T$ is called the transition Matrix(过渡矩阵) from basis ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ to ${\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }$ (第一组基 x 过渡矩阵 = 第二组基)
• $\forall \alpha \in V\text{V}V$, suppose the coordinates over the bases ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_n$ and ${\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },...,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime }$ are $(x_1,x_2,...,x_n)$ and $(x_1^{\prime },x_2^{\prime },...,x_n^{\prime })$ respectively, then
  
• 这一块就是说，对于空间中的某个向量，当使用不同的基来描述这个空间时，这个向量对应的坐标也不同。由于是同一个向量，不同基在其对应的坐标的下的线性组合都能得到它，即
  $$({\epsilon }_1^{\prime },{\epsilon }_2^{\prime },\dots ,{\epsilon }_n^{\prime })\left[\begin{array}{c}{x}_1^{\prime }\\ x_2^{\prime }\\ ⋮\\ x_n^{\prime }\end{array}\right]=[({\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,\dots ,{\epsilon }_n)T\text{T}T]\left[{T\text{T}T}^{-1}\left[\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ x_2\\ ⋮\\ x_n\end{array}\right]\right]=({\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,\dots ,{\epsilon }_n)\left[\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ x_2\\ ⋮\\ x_n\end{array}\right]$$

3.3.4 Examples

1. Consider V = { A ∈ R 2 × 2 ∣ A ⊤ = A } \pmb{V} = \{A\in R^{2\times 2}|A^\top = A\} VVV={A∈R2×2∣A⊤=A}, prove that $\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}(V)=3$
   
   （这个证明还应当说明一下 $\epsilon$ 线性无关：当 ${\sum }_{i=1}^3{\epsilon }_i{k}_i=0$ 时，$k_i$ 必定全 为0）
2. Compute the dimensions of linear spaces
   
3. Find the transition matrix and compute the coordinate
   
4. Find the transition matrix
   

4. Linear subspace（线性子空间）

4.1 Basic concept

4.1.1 linear subspace（线性子空间）

• Suppose that $V\text{V}V$ is a vector space on $P$, $W\subseteq V$ is not empty. If $W$ is a vector space for the same two algebraic operation, we call $W$ a linear subspace of $V\text{V}V$
  1. $W\subseteq V$ and $W\ne \varnothing$
  2. $W$ is a vector space for the same algebraic operation
• trivial subspace (平凡子空间) of $V\text{V}V$
  1. $V\text{V}V$ itself
  2. zero space V = { 0 } \pmb{V} = \{\pmb{0}\} VVV={000}

4.1.2 direct sum（直和）

• 二分解：If ${V\text{V}V}_1$ and ${V\text{V}V}_2$ are two subspaces of a vector space $V\text{V}V$, such that each $\alpha \in {V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2$ can be uniquely decomposed as
  $$\alpha ={\alpha }_1+{\alpha }_2,{\alpha }_1\in {V\text{V}V}_1,{\alpha }_2\in {V\text{V}V}_2$$ then the sum ${V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2$ is called a direct sum(直和) of ${V\text{V}V}_1$ and ${V\text{V}V}_2$, denoted by ${V\text{V}V}_1\dot{+}{V\text{V}V}_2$
• 多分解：Suppose that ${V\text{V}V}_1,{V\text{V}V}_2,...,{V\text{V}V}_s$ are finite subspaces of $V\text{V}V$, if $\forall \alpha \in {V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2+...+{V\text{V}V}_s$ can be uniquely decomposed as
  $$\alpha ={\alpha }_1+{\alpha }_2+...+{\alpha }_s,{\alpha }_i\in {V\text{V}V}_i(i=1,....,s)$$ then call ${V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2+...+{V\text{V}V}_s$ is a direct sum(直和), denoted by ${V\text{V}V}_1\dot{+}{V\text{V}V}_2\dot{+}...\dot{+}{V\text{V}V}_s$

4.2 Sum of subspaces

• V 1 + V 2 = { α + β ∣ α ∈ V 1 , β ∈ V 2 } \pmb{V}_1 + \pmb{V}_2 = \{\alpha+\beta|\alpha\in \pmb{V}_1, \beta\in \pmb{V}_2\} VVV1​+VVV2​={α+β∣α∈VVV1​,β∈VVV2​}

• subspaces satisfying the following conditions:

  1. $\{\begin{array}{rl}& {V\text{V}V}_1\cap {V\text{V}V}_2={V\text{V}V}_2\cap {V\text{V}V}_1\\ & {V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2={V\text{V}V}_2+{V\text{V}V}_1\end{array}$
  2. $\{\begin{array}{rl}& ({V\text{V}V}_1\cap {V\text{V}V}_2)\cap {V\text{V}V}_3={V\text{V}V}_1\cap ({V\text{V}V}_2\cap {V\text{V}V}_3)\\ & ({V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2)+{V\text{V}V}_3={V\text{V}V}_1+({V\text{V}V}_2+{V\text{V}V}_3)\end{array}$

  Generally, if ${V\text{V}V}_1,{V\text{V}V}_2,...,{V\text{V}V}_s$ are subspaces of $V\text{V}V$, then

  1. ${V\text{V}V}_1\cap {V\text{V}V}_2\cap ...\cap {V\text{V}V}_s={\bigcap }_{i=1}^s{V\text{V}V}_i$
  2. ${V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2+...+{V\text{V}V}_s={\sum }_{i=1}^s{V\text{V}V}_i$

  are subspaces of $V\text{V}V$

4.3 Theorems

4.3.1 Theorem 1

• A nonempty subset $W\text{W}W$ in $V\text{V}V$ is a subspace of $V\text{V}V$ $\iff$ $W\text{W}W$ satisfies the closure properties of addition and scalar multiplication
  原线性空间的非空子集，只要满足加法和数乘封闭性，其他8条性质一定满足，即为线性子空间
  $$\{\begin{array}{rl}& \forall \alpha ,\beta \in W\text{W}W,\alpha +\beta \in W\text{W}W\\ & \forall \alpha \in W\text{W}W,k\in P,k\alpha \in W\text{W}W\end{array}$$ 说明：$k$ 可以是数0，这样 $k\alpha =0\text{0}0\in W$ 保证加法零元存在；$k$ 可以是 -1，对任意 $\alpha \in W$ 有 $-1\cdot \alpha =-\alpha \in W$，加法逆元存在；$k$ 可以是1，保证乘法幺元存在，可以保证8条性质
• Remark：
  1. $W\text{W}W\subseteq V\text{V}V$ is a subspace $\iff W\text{W}W$ is closed with the two operations defined on $V\text{V}V$
  2. $W\text{W}W\subseteq V\text{V}V$ is a subspace $\Rightarrow$ dim($W\text{W}W$) $\le$ dim($V\text{V}V$)
     $W\text{W}W$ 的基能被 $V\text{V}V$ 的基线性表出，根据2.3.2 theorems 2，说明 $V\text{V}V$ 的基中向量个数肯定更多

4.3.2 Theorem 2

• suppose that ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s$ is a group of vectors in $V\text{V}V$. Denote
  W = s p a n ( α 1 , α 2 , . . . , α s ) = { k 1 α 1 + k 2 α 2 + . . . . + k s α s ∣ k i ∈ P , i = 1 , . . . , s } \pmb{W} = span(\alpha_1,\alpha_2,...,\alpha_s) = \{k_1\alpha_1+k_2\alpha_2+....+k_s\alpha_s|k_i\in P,i=1,...,s\} WWW=span(α1​,α2​,...,αs​)={k1​α1​+k2​α2​+....+ks​αs​∣ki​∈P,i=1,...,s} Then $W\text{W}W$ is a subspace of $V\text{V}V$. We call $W\text{W}W$ the spanned subspace by ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s$
  线性空间中一组向量生成（span）的空间一定是线性子空间

4.3.3 Theorem 3

• consider the two vector groups in $V\text{V}V$, ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s$ and ${\beta }_1,{\beta }_2,...,{\beta }_t$, then $span(({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s)=span({\beta }_1,{\beta }_2,...,{\beta }_t)\iff$ two vector groups are equivalent.
  两个向量组等价(可以互相线性表出) <=> 这两个向量组生成的线性子空间相等
• Remark
  1. $\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}(span({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s))\le s$ and the equality holds if and only if ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s$ are linearly independent
     对于 $span({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s)$ 的任意一组基 ${\epsilon }_1,{\epsilon }_2,...,{\epsilon }_r$，一定有 ${\epsilon }_i\in span({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s)$ ，也就是说这组线性无关的基向量可以由 ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s$ 线性表出，根据2.3.2 theorems 2，有 $s\ge r$。当 ${\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s$ 线性无关时，其本身也成为 $span({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,...,{\alpha }_s)$ 的一组基，此时等号成立
• Examples
  
  1. A选项对：设 $x,y\in V_1\bigcap V_2,k\in P$，有
     x , y ∈ V 1 ⇒ x + y ∈ V 1 x , y ∈ V 2 ⇒ x + y ∈ V 2 ∴ x + y ∈ V 1 ∩ V 2 x , y ∈ V 1 , V 2 ⇒ k x , k y ∈ V 1 , V 2 ∴ k x , k y ∈ V 1 ∩ V 2 ∵ { 0 } ∈ V 1 , V 2 ∴ V 1 ∩ V 2 ≠ ∅ \begin{aligned} &x,y\in V_1 \Rightarrow x+y\in V_1 \\ &x,y\in V_2 \Rightarrow x+y\in V_2 \\ &\therefore x+y \in V_1\cap V_2 \\ &x,y \in V_1, V_2 \Rightarrow kx,ky \in V_1,V_2 \\ &\therefore kx,ky \in V_1\cap V_2 \\ &\because \{0\} \in V_1,V_2 \\ &\therefore V_1\cap V_2 \neq \empty \end{aligned} ​x,y∈V1​⇒x+y∈V1​x,y∈V2​⇒x+y∈V2​∴x+y∈V1​∩V2​x,y∈V1​,V2​⇒kx,ky∈V1​,V2​∴kx,ky∈V1​∩V2​∵{0}∈V1​,V2​∴V1​∩V2​​=∅​
  2. B选项错：设 $({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2)=(0,1),({\beta }_1,{\beta }_2)=(1,0)$, 则 $V_1+V_2=span(1,1)$，这个既不在 $V_1$ 也不在 $V_2$ 因此加法不封闭，此为反例
  3. C选项错：设 $({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2...{\alpha }_s)=({\beta }_1,{\beta }_2,...,{\beta }_r)$ 则 $V_1\bigcup V_2=V_1=V_2$ 这时是 subspace，此为反例
  4. D选项对：设 $x,y\in V_1+V_2$, 则
     x = α ′ + β ′    ( α ′ ∈ V 1 , β ′ ∈ V 2 ) y = α ′ ′ + β ′ ′    ( α ′ ′ ∈ V 1 , β ′ ′ ∈ V 2 ) x + y = ( α ′ + α ′ ′ ) + ( β ′ + β ′ ′ ) α ′ + α ′ ′ ∈ V 1 , β ′ + β ′ ′ ∈ V 2 ⇒ x + y ∈ V 1 + V 2 同 理 , k x = k α ′ + k β ′ ∈ V 1 + V 2 \begin{aligned} &x = \alpha'+\beta' \space\space(\alpha'\in V_1,\beta'\in V_2)\\ &y = \alpha''+\beta'' \space\space(\alpha''\in V_1,\beta''\in V_2)\\ &x + y = (\alpha'+\alpha'') +(\beta'+\beta'') \\ & \alpha'+\alpha'' \in V_1, \beta'+\beta''\in V_2 \Rightarrow x + y \in V_1+V_2 \\ &同理, kx = k\alpha'+k\beta' \in V_1+V_2 \end{aligned} ​x=α′+β′  (α′∈V1​,β′∈V2​)y=α′′+β′′  (α′′∈V1​,β′′∈V2​)x+y=(α′+α′′)+(β′+β′′)α′+α′′∈V1​,β′+β′′∈V2​⇒x+y∈V1​+V2​同理,kx=kα′+kβ′∈V1​+V2​​
  5. E选项对：设 $\alpha \in V_1=k_1{\alpha }_1+...+k_s{\alpha }_s$， $\beta \in V_2=k_1^{\prime }{\beta }_1+...+k_r^{\prime }{\beta }_r$, 则
     $$\begin{array}{rl}& \because \alpha +\beta =\sum _{i=1}^s{k}_i{\alpha }_i+\sum _{i=1}^r{k}_i^{\prime }{\alpha }_i\in span({\alpha }_1,...,{\alpha }_s,{\beta }_1,...,{\beta }_r)\\ & \therefore V_1+V_2\subseteq span({\alpha }_1,...,{\alpha }_s,{\beta }_1,...,{\beta }_r)\\ & 同理span({\alpha }_1,...,{\alpha }_s,{\beta }_1,...,{\beta }_r)中任意向量可以拆解为span({\alpha }_1,...,{\alpha }_s)+span({\beta }_1,...,{\beta }_r)，即属于V_1+V_2\\ & \therefore span({\alpha }_1,...,{\alpha }_s,{\beta }_1,...,{\beta }_r)\subseteq V_1+V_2\\ & \therefore V_1+V_2=span({\alpha }_1,...,{\alpha }_s,{\beta }_1,...,{\beta }_r)\end{array}$$

4.3.4 Theorem 4 (Dimension Formula 维数公式)

• $V_1,V_2$ are two subspaces of finite dimensional vector space $V\text{V}V$，则
  $$dim({V\text{V}V}_1)+dim({V\text{V}V}_2)=dim({V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2)+dim({V\text{V}V}_1\cap {V\text{V}V}_2)$$ 维数公式 dim(V1)+dim(V2) = dim(V1+V2)+dim(V1∩V2)
• 证明思路：设 dim(${V\text{V}V}_1$) = s，dim(${V\text{V}V}_2$) = r
  1. 对于 $V_1\cap V_2$ 的一组基 ${\epsilon }_1,...{\epsilon }_k$，把 $V_1$ 中不能用它线性表出的向量 $\alpha$ 加入这组基，直到这组基的基向量数目为 $s$ 时，${\epsilon }_1,...{\epsilon }_k,{\alpha }_{k+1},...,{\alpha }_s$ 一定是 $V_1$ 的一组基
  2. 同理可以扩展 ${\epsilon }_1,...{\epsilon }_k,{\beta }_{k+1},...,{\beta }_r$ 为 $V_2$ 的一组基
  3. 合在一起 ${\epsilon }_1,...{\epsilon }_k,{\beta }_{k+1},...,{\beta }_r,{\alpha }_{k+1},...,{\alpha }_s$ 一共有 $s+r-k$ 个，可以用定义证明他们线性无关
  4. 易证，$V_1+V_2$ 可以用这一组向量线性表出，因此这是 $V_1+V_2$ 的一组基，得证
• 当 V 1 ∩ V 2 = { 0 } \pmb{V}_1 \cap \pmb{V}_2 = \{\pmb{0}\} VVV1​∩VVV2​={000} 时，$dim({V\text{V}V}_1\cap {V\text{V}V}_2)=0$，此时有
  $$\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}({V\text{V}V}_1)+\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}({V\text{V}V}_2)=\mathrm{d}\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}({V\text{V}V}_1+{V\text{V}V}_2)$$
• Examples

  1. 证明 subspace & 求维数 & 求一组基
     
     这个题第一问的证明有点问题，证明 subspace 应该说明非空，比如这题应该补一句关于 $0\text{0}0\in W$ 的证明

  2. 求基和维数
     

     1. 注意 4.3.3 例子中E选项的论证，说明 $V_1+V_2=span({\alpha }_1,{\alpha }_2,{\alpha }_3,{\beta }_1,{\beta }_2)$，这5个向量构成一组基，所以通过化阶梯求向量组的秩即得到 $\text{dim}(V_1+V_2)$
     2. $V_1\cap V_2$ 这个空间中的向量可以同时被 $V_1$ 和 $V_2$ 对应的两组基线性表示，因此这里联立解一个齐次线性方程组。通解为
        $$k\text{k}k=a_1\left[\begin{array}{c}-1\\ -1\\ 1\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right]+a_2\left[\begin{array}{c}-1\\ -1\\ 0\\ -1\\ 1\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{c}-a_1-a_2\\ -a_1-a_2\\ a_1\\ -a_2\\ a_2\end{array}\right]$$ 回代，就会发现 $V_1\cap V_2$ 中的任意向量在 $V_2$ 的基下表示为 $a_2({\beta }_1-{\beta }_2)$，所以 $\text{dim}(V_1\cap V_2)=1$，$V_1\cap V_2$ 的基可以是 ${\beta }_1-{\beta }_2$

4.3.5 Theorem 5 (Equivalent to direct sum 直和等价于)

• 以下表述等价
  
  

4.3.6 Theorem 6 (Direct sum decomposition 直和分解)

• Suppose that $U\text{U}U$ is a subspace of dimensional vector space $V\text{V}V$, there exists another subspace $W\text{W}W$ of $V\text{V}V$ such that
  一个向量空间可以拆成两个（多个）线性子空间的直和
  $$V\text{V}V=U\text{U}U\dot{+}W\text{W}W$$
• 证明思路：设 $dim(V\text{V}V)=n$
  1. 设 ${\epsilon }_1,...,{\epsilon }_s$ 是 $U\text{U}U$ 的一组基，将其扩展为 $V\text{V}V$ 的一组基 ${\epsilon }_1,...,{\epsilon }_s,{\beta }_{s+1},...,{\beta }_n$，则 $V\text{V}V=span({\epsilon }_1,...,{\epsilon }_s,{\beta }_{s+1},...,{\beta }_n)$，设 $W\text{W}W=span({\beta }_{s+1},...,{\beta }_n)$，此时有 $V\text{V}V=U\text{U}U+W\text{W}W$
  2. 再证明 $U\text{U}U+W\text{W}W$ 是直和，证明等价的维数公式即可
     $$\begin{array}{rl}& \because dim(U\text{U}U)=s,dim(W\text{W}W)=n-s\\ & \therefore dim(U\text{U}U+W\text{W}W)=dim(U\text{U}U)+dim(W\text{W}W)\\ & \therefore U\text{U}U+W\text{W}W是直和\end{array}$$