英语语法--名词

英语语法

词性

	nouns, 							名词，
	pronouns,						代词，
	verbs,							动词，
	adjectives, 					形容词、
	adverbs, 						副词、
	prepositions, 					介词
	conjunctions					连词
	particles,						小品词(与动词构成短语动词的副词或介词);    
	determiners, 					限定词
	gerunds.						动名词

	- 名词
	words that identify or name people, places, or things
	as the subject of a clause or sentence, 
	an object of a verb, 
	or an object of a preposition[介词]. 
	- 代词
	words that represent nouns
	used in the same ways as nouns
	- 动词
	describe the actions—or states of being—of people, animals, places, or things
	Verbs function as the root of what’s called the predicate[谓语],
	- 形容词
	that modify (add description to) nouns and (occasionally) pronouns.
	can be a part of either the subject or the predicate
	- 副词
	 modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or even entire clauses
	 adverbs can appear anywhere in the sentence
	 Adverbs are commonly formed from adjectives by adding “-ly” to the end
	 - 介词
	 express a relationship between a noun or pronoun (known as the
	 object of the preposition) and another part of the sentence. 

	 Together, these form prepositional phrases[介词短语], which can function as adjectives or as adverbs in a sentence.such as on the table, in the shed, and across the field.
	- 连词
	connect other words, phrases, or clauses
	expressing a specific kind of relationship between the two (or more) elements. 
	The most common conjunctions are the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet.
	- 其他部分
	particles,								与动词构成短语动词的副词或介词 
	articles, 								冠词
	determiners,							限定词(置于名词前起限定作用
	gerunds, 								动名词
  	interjections							感叹词;

Nouns

Definition

words that indicate a person, place, or thing.
function as the subject or the object of a verb or preposition
Nouns can also follow linking verbs to rename or re-identify the subject of a sentence or clause; 
these are known as predicate nouns.

The Subject

The subject in a sentence or clause is the person or thing doing, performing, or controlling the action of the verb. 

Objects

the direct object of a verb, 
the indirect object of a verb, 
or the object of a preposition.

- Direct objects
what receive the action of the verb in a sentence or clause
- Indirect objects
the person or thing who receives the direct object of the verb
such as:Please pass [Jeremy] the salt
- Objects of prepositions
used after prepositions to create prepositional phrases
such as:
Your backpack is [under the table]
- Predicate Nouns
follow linking verbs are known as predicate nouns (sometimes known as
predicative nouns).
These serve to rename or re-identify the subjec
If the noun is accompanied by any direct modifiers (such as articles, adjectives, or prepositional
phrases), the entire noun phrase acts predicatively
such as:
Love is a virtue

Categories of Nouns

- Common and Proper Nouns
Proper Nouns are signified by capital letters
such as:
Common:“He sat on the [chair].”
Proper:“I’ll have a [Pepsi], please.”
- Nouns of Address
used in direct speech to identify the person or group being directly
spoken to, or to get that person’s attention. Like interjections[感叹词], they are grammatically
unrelated to the rest of the sentence
such as:
James, I need you to help me with the dishes.
- Concrete and Abstract Nouns
such as:
table and love
- Countable and Uncountable Nouns
such as:
cup and tea
- Collective Nouns
 they still function as singular nouns in a sentence.
such as:
The [flock] of birds flew south for the winter.
- Attributive Nouns (Noun Adjuncts)
nouns that are used to modify other nouns. The resulting phrase is called a compound noun
such as:
The boy played with his [toy] [soldier]
- Compound Nouns
composed of two or more words working together as a single
unit to name a person, place, or thing
usually made up of two nouns or an adjective and a noun.
such as:
water bottle
policeman
- Noun Phrases
a group of two or more words that function together as a noun in a sentence
such as:
He brought [the shovel with the blue handle]
- Nominalization 
 the creation of a noun from verbs or adjectives
 such as:
 “My fiancée is an actor.” (The verb act becomes the noun actor.)
“The hardness of diamond makes it a great material for cutting tools.” (The adjective hard becomes the noun hardness.)

Proper Nouns

- Names
- Brands
- Appellations
When a person has additional words added to his or her name
such as:
Prince William
- Job Titles and Familial Roles
a person may be referred to according to a professional title or familial role instead of by name.
In this case, the title is being used as a noun of address and is considered a proper noun, 
even if it would be a common noun in other circumstances
such as:
“Mr. President, I didn’t see you there.”
“Pleased to meet you, Doctor.”

Nouns of Address

identify the person or group being directly spoken to
they are grammatically unrelated to the rest of the sentence
- Punctuation
No matter where they occur, they are normally set apart from the rest of the sentence by one or two commas. 

- Terms of endearment
When a term of endearment is being used in place of a person’s name, we do not capitalize the word unless it begins the sentence. 
For example:
“Would you get me a glass of water, sweetie?”
 “Love, please put away your clothes.
 - Other common nouns
 If they do not act as a professional or familial title, other common nouns should generally remain in lowercase, unless they occur as the first word of the sentence. For example:
 “Please stand up, boys and girls.
  “Ladies and gentlemen, please remain seated for the duration of the performance.”

Concrete and Abstract Nouns

- Concrete Nouns
such as:
rocks
Africa
- Abstract Nouns
such as:
love

verbs that end in “-ing” and function as nouns, are also abstract. 
These all name actions as concepts
such as:
running

Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns

- Concrete countable nouns
such as:
a cup – two cups
- Abstract countable nouns
such as:
an emergency – several emergencies
a reading – 10 readings
- Concrete uncountable nouns
 that are uncountable tend to be substances or collective categories of things. For instance:
 wood
 homework
 
 Uncountable nouns cannot take the indefinite articles a or an in a sentence
 they cannot take numbers or plural forms
 We often use the words some or any to indicate an unspecified quantity of uncountable nouns
 However, uncountable nouns can sometimes take the definite article the, because it does not specify an amount:
 - Abstract uncountable nouns
 such as:
 love
 beauty

Grammar with countable nouns

主语/宾语
他/她/它[们]/他/她/它[们]的

复数第三人称，不区分性别/生命，区分主语/宾语
When we use countable nouns, certain elements in a sentence will change depending on whether the noun is singular or plural.
 - Third-person singular vs. third-person plural pronouns
 a. Singular
 When a noun is singular and names a person (or, sometimes, a pet) whose gender is known,* then we use the third-person singular 
 he, him, or his (masculine) 
 or she, her, or hers (feminine). 
 If the noun names a singular place, thing, or non-domestic animal, then we must use the thirdperson neuter pronoun it:
 b. Plural
 When a noun is plural, we use the same third-person pronouns for people, places, animals, and things: they, them, and theirs*.
c. *Usage Note: “Singular they”
English does not have a way of identifying a single person with a pronoun if his or her gender is not known, 
so sometimes the third-person plural forms (they, them, etc.) are used as a gender-neutral alternative to the third-person feminine/masculine forms.
- Subject-verb agreement 
单数/复数 
现在时/过去时
Subject-verb agreement refers to using certain conjugations of verbs for singular subjects and using other conjugations for plural subjects. This happens most noticeably with the verb to be, which becomes is or was with singular subject nouns and are or were with plural subjects.
For any other verb, we only need to make a change if it is in the present simple tense. 
For most verbs, this is accomplished by adding an “-s” to the end if it is singular and leaving it in its base form if it is plural. 
For example:
• “My father runs his own business.” (singular)
• “But his sons run it when he’s away.” (plural)
The verbs have and do also only conjugate for singular subjects in the present simple tense, 
but they have irregular forms for this: has and does.
For example:
• “The apple has a mark on it.” (singular)
• “All the apples have marks on them.” (plural)
• “The teacher does not think it’s a good idea.” (singular)
• “The other teachers do not mind, though.” (plural)
Finally, the modal auxiliary verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, might, 
and must do not conjugate for singular vs. plural subjects—they always remain the same. 
For instance:
• “This phone can also surf the Internet!” (singular)
• “Most phones can do that now.” (plural)
“The president will arrive in Malta next week.” (singular)
• “The other diplomats will arrive shortly after that.” (plural)

Uncountable Nouns

such as:
• wood, smoke, air, water
• furniture, homework, accommodation, luggage
• love, hate, beauty, intelligence, arrogance
• news*, access

Uncountable nouns cannot take the indefinite articles “a” or “an” in a sentence, 
because these words indicate a single amount of something. 
We often use the words “some” or “any” to indicate an unspecified quantity of uncountable nouns. 
We’ll investigate this more in a later part of this section.
However, uncountable nouns can sometimes take the definite article “the,” 
However, this is only the case if a specific uncountable noun is being described.
such as:
✔ “I am looking for accommodation.” (correct)
✔ “I am looking for the accommodation listed in this advertisement.” (correct—references specific accommodation)

- 
Just as uncountable nouns cannot take the indefinite articles “a” or “an” because there is not “one” of them, 
it is equally incorrect to use third-person plural pronouns with them, as they are not considered a collection of single things. 
Person A: “Your hair looks very nice today.”
✖ Person B: “Yes, I washed them last night.” (incorrect)
✔ Person B: “Yes, I washed it last night.” (correct)
Note that single hairs become countable. 
If there are two hairs on your jacket, you can say “hairs” or use the plural pronoun “they.” 
The hair on your head, however, is seen as an uncountable noun.
不可数名词没有复数形式

- Subject-verb agreement
Because uncountable nouns are grammatically singular, they must take singular forms of their verbs.
✖ “The furnitures in my living room are old.” (incorrect)
✖ “The furnitures in my living room is old.” (incorrect)
✔ “The furniture in my living room is old.” (correct)

- Measurements of distance, time, and amount
A notable exception to the subject-verb rule we just discussed relates to countable nouns that
are describing measurements of distance, time, or amount. In this case, we consider the sum
as a singular amount, and so they must take singular forms of their verbs. For example:
✖ “$20,000 have been credited to your account.” (incorrect)
✔ “$20,000 has been credited to your account.” (correct)
✖ “I think 50 miles are too far to travel on foot.” (incorrect)
✔ “I think 50 miles is too far to travel on foot.” (correct)
✖ “Wow, two hours fly by when you’re having fun!” (incorrect)
✔ “Wow, two hours flies by when you’re having fun!” (correct)
- Making uncountable nouns countable
If we want to identify one or more specific “units” of an uncountable noun, then we must add more information to the sentence to make this clear.
For example, if you want to give someone advice in general, you could say:
• “Can I give you advice?” or;
• “Can I give you some advice?
But if you wanted to emphasize that you’d like to give them a particular aspect or facet of advice, 
you could not say, “Can I give you an advice?” Instead, 
we have to add more information to specify what we want to give:
• “Can I give you a piece of advice?”
By adding “piece of” to the uncountable noun advice, 
we have now made it functionally countable. 
This means that we can also make this phrase plural, though we have to be careful to pluralize the count noun that we’ve added, 
and not the uncountable noun itself. For example:
• “Can I give you a few pieces of advice?”

- Using quantifiers with uncountable nouns
修饰量词	区分 不可数/可数
不可数名词可数化后，整体是可数形态
Too – Too Much – Too Many
We use “too + adjective” to mean “beyond what is needed or desirable,” as in, “It is too big.”
Too much, on the other hand, is used to modify uncountable nouns, while too many is used with countable nouns—
they are not used with adjectives. For example, the following sentences would both be incorrect:
✖ “It is too much big.”
✖ “It is too many big.”
✖ “I have too much pieces of furniture.” (incorrect)
✔ “I have too many pieces of furniture.” (correct)
One particular source of confusion that can arise here is the fact that much can be used as an adverb before too to give it emphasis, 
as in:
• “It is much too big.

Fewer vs. Less
The conventional rule regarding less vs. fewer is that we use fewer with countable nouns and less with uncountable nouns. For example:
The rule carries over when we add words to an uncountable noun to make a countable phrase (as we looked at above). 
• “I want less toast.” (toast is uncountable)
• “I want fewer pieces of toast.” (pieces of toast is countable)

Measurements of distance, time, and amount
As we noted above, measurements of distance, time, or amount for nouns 
that we would normally consider countable (and thus plural) end up taking singular verbs. 
Likewise, these terms also take the word less, most often in the construction less than. For example:

• “$20,000 is less than we expected to pay.”
• “We walked less than 50 miles to get here.”
• “We have less than two hours to finish this project.”
• “I weigh 20 pounds less than I used to.”
Note, however, that we can’t use less before these kinds of nouns:
✖ “We have less $20,000.” (incorrect)
✖ “I ran less 10 miles.” (incorrect)
Less is also used with countable nouns in the construction one less _____, as in:
• “That is one less problem to worry about.”
Fewer can also be used (albeit less commonly), 
but the construction usually changes to one ______ fewer, as in:
• “That is one problem fewer to worry about.
- Collective Nouns
refer to a collection or group of multiple people, animals, or things. 
they still usually function as singular nouns in a sentence.
such as:
group

a. Similarity to plural nouns
Collective nouns are very similar to plural nouns, such as dogs.
Both plural nouns and collective nouns can refer to multiple things. 
• “The soldiers marched very swiftly.” (plural noun)
• “The platoon marched very swiftly.” (collective noun)
As in the previous examples, both soldiers and platoon indicate multiple people. However,
only platoon lets the reader know that the soldiers are organized into a collective unit.

b. Singular vs. Plural Use
Collective nouns usually function as singular nouns in a sentence, 
but they are occasionally used as plurals, too.
the members of the collective noun are being regarded as a single, whole unit, 
or as multiple individuals.
such as:
• “The offense hopes to score a touchdown on its next play.”
• “The jury eat their lunches before they deliberate.”

Finally, it is worth noting that in British English, 
it is more common for collective nouns to function as plurals in all instances.

c. Plural-only collective nouns
Certain collective nouns can only be plural, such as “police.” For example:
✔ “The police are investigating the matter.” (correct)
However, we can make the noun countable by adding more information to the sentence. 
If we want to specify a single member of the police, we could say:
• “A police officer is investigating the matter.”
people
children
poultry
vermin
cattle

d. Collective Nouns and Animals
flock of birds
pod of whales
pack of wolves
pride of lions
gaggle of geese
band of coyotes
gatling of woodpeckers
huddle of penguins
mob of kangaroos
school of fish

- Compound Nouns
a noun consisting of two or more words working together as a single unit 
to name a person, place, or thing. 

a. Forming compound nouns
b. Writing compound nouns
swimming pool
mother-in-law
rainfall
c. Pluralizing compound nouns
d. Pronouncing compound nouns

- Nominalization (Creating Nouns)
the creation of a noun from verbs or adjectives
a. 
Walking

Note that if the gerund takes any additional information, 
such as an object, adverb, or prepositional phrase, 
then this entire group of words (known as a gerund phrase) acts as a noun. 

b. Nouns of agency and profession
actor
teacher

c. Nouns of recipience
For verbs that become nouns to represent someone who is the recipient of an action, we often use the suffix “-ee.”
d. Nouns of general action
“-tion,” “-sion,” “-ance,” “-ment,” and “-ence”; in some instances, we change the ending of the verb slightly in order to take the suffix.
Some other suffixes that work in this way are “-al” and “-ure,” as in:
e. Adjectives
We change adjectives into nouns when we want to speak of them as general ideas or concepts.
“-ness”
However, when we use this suffix with an adjective ending in “-y,” we change “y” to “i”:
 “We’re waiting for some steadiness in the market.” (The adjective steady becomes the noun steadiness.)
 “-y”
 difficulty
 “-ity”
 When adjectives end in “-e,” they often take the suffix “-ity” to become nouns. 
 However, there is often a change to the spelling of the word. 
 Usually, we simply drop “e” and replace it with “-ity,” as in:
 scarce --> scarcity
 rare -> rarity
 When the word ends in “ble,” though, we have to change “le” to “il,” as in:
 responsible-->responsibility
 “-ance” and “-ence
 We often use the suffix “-ance” for adjectives ending in “-ant,” as in:
 independent->independence
 f. Conversion
 When we use a verb or adjective as a noun without changing its spelling in any way, 
 it is called conversion or zero derivation.
 • “Please answer the phone, Tom.” (verb)
• “We’ll need an answer by tomorrow.” (noun)

 instead of changing a word’s spelling, we change where we pronounce a stress on the word’s syllables to indicate a shift from a verb to a noun; this change is known as a suprafix. 
 • “You need to convert pounds into kilograms.” (verb)
• “The church always welcomes recent converts to its meetings.” (noun)
The word use can also function as either a noun or a verb, but instead of changing the stress on a syllable, we change the actual pronunciation of the word, as in:
• “We plan to use a diagnostic test to evaluate the problem.” (verb—use is pronounced “yooz”)
• “There is only one use for this tool.” (noun—use is pronounced “yuce”)
g. Nominal adjectives
We can also convert adjectives into nouns without changing spelling, but we generally do so by adding the article the before the word. These are known as nominal adjectives. For example:
“The wealthy have an obligation to help the poor.”
• “We all want the best for her
h. Infinitives
Lastly, verbs can serve the function of nouns by being used in their infinitive form—that is, the base form of the verb with the particle to
Infinitives are not technically an example of nominalization, because they can also act as adjectives and adverbs,
For example:
- As the subject of a clause
“To err is human; to forgive is divine.
“To live in the city means adjusting to a completely different lifestyle.”
- As the object of a verb
• “I’m not going unless you agree to go with me.”
• “You appear to be correct.”
- As an object complement[宾语补语]
An object complement is a word or group of words that describe, rename, or complete the direct object of the verb.
• “I don’t expect you to approve of my decision.”
• “She’s forcing me to work through the weekend.”

词形变化

conjugation					动词的变化形式 ，如动词的时态
and declension			名词，代词，形容词，副词，动词的词形变化，如名词的单复数

句法

subjects and predicates													主语和谓语
modifiers, phrases, and clauses										修饰语、短语和从句
different structures and categories of sentences			不同的句子结构和类别