Computer Networks

Computer Networks

译：计算机网络

 1.   Networks   译：网络

Some reasons are causing centralized computer systems to give way to networks.

译：一些原因导致集中计算机系统让位于网络。

The first one is that many organizations already have a substantial number of computers in operation, often located far apart . Initially , each of these computers may have worked in isolation from the other ones ,but at a certain time ,management may have decided to  connect them to be able to correlate information about the entire organization . Generally speaking ,this goal is to make all programs ,data ,and other resources available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical  location of  the resource and the user .

译：第一个原因是许多机构已拥有大量正在工作的计算机，这些计算机通常相距较远。起先，每台机器可能独立工作，但在某些时候，管理上可能决定把它们连接起来以便整个机构的信息能够相互关联。一般说来，这一目标是使所有程序、数据和其它资源能够被网络上的任何人所获取，而不必考虑资源和用户的物理位置。

The second one is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of supply .With a network ,the temporary loss of  a single computer is much less serious , because its users can often be accommodated else where until the service is restored .

译：第二个原因是通过可选资源提供更高的可靠性。在网络中，单个计算机临时的损失无关紧要，因为它的用户可以从别处获取信息，直到该计算机恢复功能。

Yet another reason of setting up a computer network is computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among widely separated people .

译：建立计算机网络的另一个原因是计算机网络能在广泛分布的人们之间提供强有力的通讯介质。

Application of Networks   译：网络的应用

   One of the main areas of potential network sue is access to remote database .It may someday be easy for people sitting  at  their terminals at home to make reservations for airplanes trains ,  buses , boats ,  restaurants ,  theaters , hotels , and so on , at anywhere in the world with instant confirmation . Home banking , automated newspaper and fully automated library also fall in this category .Computer aided education is another possible field for using network ,with many different courses being offered.

译：潜在的网络应用的主要领域之一是访问远程数据库。可能有一天人们可以坐在家里，方便地预定飞机、火车、汽车、船、饭店、剧院、旅馆等的位置或床位，无论是在世界上的什么地方都可以立刻得到回复。家庭银行、自动报纸和全自动图书馆也在此列。计算机辅助教育是另一个可能利用网络的地方，其中提供了许多不同的教程。

Teleconferencing is a whole new form communication. With it widely separated people can conduct a meeting by typing messages at their terminals .Attendees may leave at will and find out what they missed when they come back .International contacts by human begin may be greatly enhanced by network based communication facilities .

译：电话会议是一个全新的通讯形式，通过这种形式距离很远的人么可以通过在他的终端上键入信息来召开一次会议。参加者可以随便离开，并可以在回来的时候发现他刚才漏掉的信息。基于网络的通讯设备将大幅度增强人类之间的国家接触。

Network Structure . 译：网络结构

Broadly speaking, there are two general types of designs for the communication subnet:

(1)      Point –to –point channels

(2)      Broadcast channels

译：一般而言，有两种通用的子网的设计方案。

（1）       点对点通道

（2）       广播式通道

In the first one , the network contains numerous cables or lesased  telephone lines, each one connecting a pair of nodes .If two nodes that do not share a cable wish to communicate , they must do this indirectly via other nodes .When a message is sent from node to another via one or more inter mediate modes , each intermediate node will receive the message and store it until the required output line is free so that it can transmit the message forward .The subnet using this principle is called a point –to –piont or store –and –forward subnet.

译：在第一种子网中，网络包含大两电缆或是租用的电话线，每条线连接一对节点。如果两个节点之间没有电缆却想相互通信，它们必须通过其它节点间接地达到目的。当信息从一个节点，通过一个或多个节点，发向存储转发子网。

When a point –to –point subnet is used ,the important problem is how to design the connected topology between the nodes .

译：当采用点对点子网时一个重要的问题是怎样设计节点间相互连接的拓扑结构。

The second kind of communication architecture uses broadcasting.In this design there is a single communication channel shared by all nodes .The inherence in broadcast systems is that messages sent by any node are received by all other nodes .

译：第二种通讯结构使用广播方式。在这种设计中所有节点共享一通信通道。广播系统的基本属性是由任一节点发送的信息均能被其它所有节点接收。

The ISO Reference Model  译：IOS参考模型

The Reference Model of OpenSystem Interconnection (OSI), as OSI calls it ,has seven layers .The major onesof the principles , from which OSI  applied to get the seven layers , are asfollows:

译：被ISO称为开发系统互连（ISO）的参考模型有七个层次。ISO应用了下面一些主要原则得出这七个层次：

(1)      Alayer should be created where a different level of abstraction is needed.

(2)      Each layer should perform a well defined function .

(3)      The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally standardized protocols.

(4)      The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces .

(5)      The number of layers should be large enough so that distinct need not be put together in the same layer without necessity ,and small enough so that the architecture will not become out control .

译：

（1）       在需要一个不同的抽象等级时应设立一个层次。

（2）       每一层应执行一种严格定义的功能。

（3）       每一层应执行参照国际标准化的协议来选择。

（4）       选择层次边界时力图使穿越接口的信息流量最小。

（5）       层次的数量一股脑足够多以便使不同的功能不至于毫无必要地放在同一层次中，层次的数量还应足够少以便结构不会变得难以控制。

The Physical Layer   译：物理层

The physical  layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel .Typical questions here are how many volts shoule be used to represent an 1 and how many a 0,how many microseconds a bit occupies ,whether transmission may proceed simultaneously in both are finished ,how to establish the initial connection and what kind of function each pin has .The design issues here largely deal with mechanical ,electrical and procedural interfacing to the subnet .

译：物理层通过通信通道传输原始比特。此处典型的问题是用多少伏特表示1，用多少伏特表示0，每一比特占多少微秒，是否传输过程可以在两个方向上同时进行，怎样网络连接，网络连接器有多少管脚，每个管脚的功能如何。这里的大多数设计问题旨在处理子网的机械、电子和过程接口。

The data link layer   译：数据链路层

The task of the data link layer is to obtain a raw transmission facility and to transform it into a line that appears free of transmission errors to the network layer .It accomplishes this task by breading the input data up into data frames , transmitting the frames sequentially ,and processing the acknowledgment  frames  sent back the receiver .

译：数据链路层的任务是获取原始的传输信息，并把它转换到线路中。经此转换，到达网络时这样来完成此项任务的：把输入数据划分成数据帧，处理从接收者返回的应答帧。

Since the physical layer merely accepts and  transmits a stream of bits without any regard to meaning or structure ,it can create and recognize frame boundaries until the data link layer .This can be accomplished by attaching special  bits patterns to the beginning and the end of the frame .But it produce two problems: one is a noise burst on the line can destroy a frame completely .In this case,the software in the source machine must retransmit  the  frame .The other is that some mechanism must be employed to let the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver has at the moment .

译：由于物理层只接收和传输比特流而不考虑意义和结构，所以直到数据链路层才产生和识别帧的边界，这可以通过在帧在开头和末尾附加特殊模式来完成。这样可以产生两个问题：第一个问题是线路上的噪声段可能把一个帧全部毁坏。在这种情况下，源机器上的软件必须重发该帧。另一个问题是必须应用一些机制以使发送者能够知道此刻接收者有多大的缓冲空间。

The network layer   译：网络层

The network layer controls the operation of subnet .It determines the chief characteristics of the node-host interface ,and how packets ,the units of information exchanged in this layer ,are routed within the subnet .

译：网络层控制子网的操作，它决定节点----主机接口的主要特性，以及包怎样在子网中按规定的路径传送，包是指在此层中住处交换在单元。这层软件要做的基本上是从源主机接收信息，把它们转换成包，并监控着包传向目的地。关键性的设计问题是怎样决定路径以反映当前网络的负载情况。

The transport layer   译：传输层

The basic function of transport layer is to accept data from the session layer,split it up into smaller units ,if necessary ,pass these to the network layer,and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end .

译：传输层的基本功能是从对话层接收数据，如果必要的话，将其切分成较小的单元，再传输到网络层，并确保这些数据片全部正确到达另一端。

This layer is a true end-to-end layer .In other words ,a program on the source machine carries on a convenestation with as similar program on the destination machine , using the message header and control messages .

译：这一层是真正的端对端层，换句话说，源机器上的程序和目标机器上相似的程序使用信息头和控制信息进行对话。

The session layer   译：对话层

With the session layer , the user must negotiate to establish a connection with a process on  another machine .The connection is usually called a session. A session might be used to allow a user to log into a remote time-sharing system or to transfer a file between two machines .The operation of setting up a session between two processes is often called binding .

译：在对话层用户必须协商建立与另一机器上一个进程的连接，这一连接通常称为对话。一个对话可能用来允许用户登录到一个远程分时系统上，或者在两机器间传输文件。在两个进程之间建立对话的操作通常称为联结。

Another function of the session layer is to manage the session once it has been set up .

译：对话层的另一个功能是在已建立对话之后对其进行管理。

The presentation layer     译：表示层

The presentation layer could be designed to accept ASCⅡstrings as input and produce compressed bit patterns as output .This function of the presentation layer is called text compression . 

译：表示层可以接收ASCⅡ码字符串，并产生压缩了比特模式作为输出，表示层的这一功能称为文本压缩。

In addition ,this layer can also perform other  trans formations .Encryption provide security is one possibility .Conversion between character codes ,such as ASCⅡto EBCDIC,might often be useful .More generally ,different computers usually have incompatible file formats ,so a file conversion option might be useful at times.

译：另外，这一层还可以执行其它的变换。为提供安全而进行加密是一种可能，字符间的转换，例如ASCⅡ码到EBCDIC码，经常是有用的。更一般地，不同的计算机通常有不兼容的文件格式，因此文件转换有时是有用的。

The application layer  译：应用层

Many issues occur here .For example ,all the issues of network transparency ,hiding the physical distribution of resources from user .Another issue is problem partitioning:how to divide the problem among the various machine in order to take maximum advantage of the network .

译：这里有许多问题，例如，网络透明性的所有问题，即在用户面前隐藏资源的物理分布，另一个问题是问题的切分：问题怎样在各种机器之中被分开以便最大限度地利用网络的优势。