景观设计展望：国际性和中国特色

 摘   要

园林设计在中国已经有悠久的历史，是中国优秀的传统之一，现代景观设计仍然在传统的范例和国际的范例之间探寻其自己的风格。 北京土人景观规划设计研究院所做的项目展示了当代的、同时又是自己的设计语言。

中国以其古老的画意园林艺术而著称，它们看起来像散点透视的中国画，象征着自然和人之间的和谐关系。同时，中国是世界上的第四大国，以大量的文化景观而闻名，经过数个世纪，逐渐演进土地的使用方式适应其不同的自然条件和气候区域。关于自然循环和把人类融入在这循环之中的广泛知识，也流入了景观的设计之中。历史学家们也同意，从长远的角度看，不断地清洁、修梯田、翻转土壤、种植和灌溉等，对他们的生存环境所造成的影响，远远比其他国家对环境造成的影响要深远得多。

关键词：古老，自然，和谐

　　建筑行业正在蓬勃发展，摩天大厦、时尚的居住区、软件工业园和商业区如雨后春笋般地涌现。正是当代城市的发展趋势，景观设计也正在以前所未有的速度发生着变化，令人头晕目眩的速度使得一切都有可能，但是这同时也增加了对环境的影响和破坏。随着收入的增长、社会的发展和教育水平的提高，人们已经越来越意识到环境和休闲的重要性，对城市空间的组织形式和设计的要求也在逐渐提高。在当代城市的发展趋势与丰厚的历史渊源之间，摆在中国景观设计师面前的选择是什么？这些选择又怎样反映中国当代景观设计师的地位和发展趋势？

　　对许多访问中国的外国人来说，这里的文化景观的多样性就像一个大花园中镶嵌着堤坝、梯田和原野一样。这与埃及人大不一样，他们居住在沙漠边缘，他们设计的园林所用的理性，如同他们的果园或者麦田一样。然而，中国人从来不会在园林中复制他们的这种文化景观。在传统的中国园林设计中，不是用人工的理性和几何方式来创造景观，而是用他们所熟悉的自然景物来创造一个微缩的自然景观。花园象征着宇宙 ——“一壶天地”（ 摘引自唐朝618-907年的一个学者的话），因为它有很多的风景元素，例如小溪、山岗、泉水、池塘、岛屿、亭阁、植物和悬崖等）。

　　直至今天，许多中国设计师仍然在有限的空间里布置许多风景元素，这不仅仅是模仿自然，更重要的是创造中国乃至全世界的缩影。欧洲传统的大草坪是和自然的新鲜和光明联系在一起的，这种感觉源于牧羊人的体验，而中国人将草原与北方荒蛮和威胁联系在一起。1920年，一个中国的旅游者认为欧洲园林中广阔的草坪用来饲养奶牛很好，但不适宜陶冶人。然而如今，草坪却是国际化和富贵的象征。乡土植物和自然的生态系统的发展被看作是不文明的，不开化的。直到现在，以华丽的、奢侈的和轴线的语言进行的设计仍然占着统治地位，设计缺少和内容之间的联系，只是将认为代表中国的古塔、象征性的石块以及奇花异卉，与欧洲巴洛克风格的树篱和雕刻元素相结合，用昂贵的时尚的材料，形成一种多彩的风格混合，而这种风格的混合则象征着以经济进步为导向的文化。这种风格的混合是因为甲方的偏见和他们强烈希望表达的东西，例如正在迅速增长的中国中上阶层的品味和他们想在居住环境中显示自己财富的渴望，另外，设计师的教育背景参差不齐也是原因之一。

　　尽管小规模的园林设计在中国已经有几百年的历史，但是景观设计学作为一门独立的规划设计学科才在过去20多年内逐渐形成。在当今的城市膨胀和环境恶化背景下，景观设计学的发展有着特别的意义：它不仅提高了景观在城市中的地位，而且在发展关于生态问题、基础设施、和土地利用的思想中起到了重要作用。解决这些问题的方法不能从狭窄的传统的对这个领域的理解中、和有限的古典园林的设计模式中去寻找，也不能从外国的作品中借用。那么中国的景观设计师应该怎样才能满足当代中国人的现代化和更加国际化的需求，而同时又有地域性和特色呢？那些年轻的事务所，许多是由留学回国的人员创立，他们对这个领域有新的理解，现代的看法，不同的答案，他们在尝试着给这个领域提出新的推动因素，并且在实践中对现在的发展趋势提出置疑。一位代表性的年轻景观设计师就是俞孔坚。他在浙江省的一个农村里长大，那里有独特的传统的乡村开放空间。他曾就读于北京林业大学的园林专业，这是中国最大的也是历史最久的风景园林设计学校（1952年建立），之后他在哈佛大学获得了设计学博士学位。1997年回国后，他在北京创立了土人景观规划设计研究院，现在有约200名设计师，是当今中国最大的私人景观设计单位。 

　　俞孔坚指出，中国目前面临着民族身份危机和人地关系危机。在他发表的文章和书籍中，在他建立的北京大学景观设计学课程中，以及在他所做的项目中，他正在努力创建一种现代的但又是中国的景观设计风格。同时他也在寻找景观设计与场所精神之间的紧密联系：他正在发展一种源自场地的设计途径，与它的自然背景，历史文脉和当地人的风俗习惯相结合。在阐述设计的过程中，他唤起对足下乡土中国的文化景观和乡土植物的审美意识——这在中国是一个崭新的概念。

　　在沈阳建筑大学新校园的设计中，“土人景观”抓住了农业景观的基本结构特点，用直线形的小路来分隔稻田。这个主题对一个学校的校园来说是非同寻常的，它既可以提供一种生产性的文化景观，而且水稻收割以后还可以作为纪念品出售。斜对角种植的成排的树，小树林以及直线中轴上的行道树形成了一个强有力的构架，从而把校园分隔成大小不同的空间板块，里面种植寻常的作物和乡土野草。稻田校园的几何形态源于周围的农田的几何肌理。在稻田的基底上，分割出小尺度的树荫广场，为学生提供了一个不同寻常的学习环境。另一个项目是北京的中关村生命科学园，将中心公园区域建成湿地水系统，人行道网络引导人们穿越观赏各种本地水生植物和芦苇，以台阶相连接的高低不同的小径可以通向水位高低不同的区域。

　　位于台州的永宁公园，以前是永宁江的防洪堤岸，全部都是坚硬冰冷的水泥墙壁，现在却是栽种着当地的芦苇和野草的生机勃勃的景象。改造之后，将河漫滩还给了河流，形成自然湿地，进行水土净化。公园里和河流相同的高度上是一个内河湿地系统，这片湿地的形状与在方形种植池中栽种的中国水杉矩阵形成了鲜明的对比，这种水杉在中国南方的水系景观中非常普遍。公园里格网式分布的小路以及其中的小桥和栈道供游玩者走遍公园的每一个角落。永宁公园另一大非同寻常的特点是公园里的几个多彩的景观盒子，每个方盒子讲述了一个故事，给游玩者提供了一个特殊的休闲场所。

在有关“土人景观”的项目描述中，对中国问题的关注显而易见，包括关心生态环境和自然的动态发展过程，如水位变化，考虑季节变化，促进生态系统发展，栽种和收获等。这些考虑再加上乡土的野生植物的应用和乡土文化景观的借鉴，保留和利用历史上的构筑物和简练的设计语言，使“土人景观”能设计出一个个具有国际性和现代性的、同时拥有中国自己文化个性的优秀作品。

Internationality and Identity——The search for a contemporary design idiom in China

                              ABSTRACT

Garden design has along tradition in China. Modern landscape architecture is still searching to develop its own style between traditional examples and international monotony. Projects by the office Turenscape demonstrate elements of a contemporary yet autonomous language of design.

China is known for the age-old art of planning painterly gardens which look like there-dimensional paintings, symbols of harmny between nature and man. China, the fourth-largest country on earth, is also known for a large variety of spectuacular cultural landscape which have evolved over centuries of adapting the way land is used to its many different natural conditions and climatic zones. Extnesive knowledge of nature's cycles and intergrating man into these cycles has flowed into the design of the landscape. Historians also agree that by continually clearing, terracing, turning the soil, planting and irrigating, the Chinese have influenced their environment in a more long-lasting way than any other nation.

KEY  WORDS   age-old；nature；harmny

Because of the current tendencies in city development-the construction industry is booming and everywhere skyscrapers, fashionable residential districts, software parks and shopping centers are springing up-the landscape is being developed at a rate never experienced before, causing an increasingly damaging impact on the environment. Everything seems possible, and at a dizzying rate. Environmental and recreational consciousness is increasing along with rising levels of income, prosperity and education. The need for an enduring form of organization and design of urban spaces is growing steadily. What options exist for the profession of landscape architecture in China, in light of its historic roots and current trends in city development? And how are these options reflected in the current position and trends in developing contemporary Chinese landscape architecture?

To many foreigners visiting China, the diversity of cultural landscapes appears like a large garden with a mosaic of dams, terraces and fields. Differing greatly from the Egyptians, who lived in inhospitable deserts and planned their gardens on the desert borders in the same rational way as their fruit orchards or wheat fields, the Chinese never copied their cultural landscapes in their gardens. In traditional Chinese garden design, rather than being artificially stylized or formal geometric compositions, the gardens were a miniature concentration of natural landscape images created by a compression of familiar landscape scenarios. The garden, "Heaven and Earth in one vessel", (quotation from a scholar from the Tang Dynasty 618-907) represents the universe, with its many landscape elements such as brooks, hills, springs, ponds, islands, pavilions, plants and cliffs.

Today many Chinese designs are still characterized by the placement of too many elements in a limited space, and of not only imitating nature, but also creating miniature copies of Chinese and international models. Whereas the European tradition of lawns is associated with nature's freshness and brightness from the tradition of the shepherd, the Chinese associate their grass steppes oft the north with the wilderness which threatens their civilisation. As recently as 1920, a Chinese traveller described the expansive lawns in European parks as good for cows, but not suitable for man's intellect. Today, however, lawns are symbols of internationalism and luxury. Native plants and natural ecosystem development are still considered uncivilized. Until now, designs which use ornamental, strongly decorative and axial language, are dominating. The designs lack a relationship to the context. Set pieces identifiable as being traditionally Chinese, such as pagoda forms, symbolic stone formations and plant varieties, paired with European Baroque hedges and sculptural elements, and expensive, modern materials, create a colourful mixture of styles. The style mixture is a symbol of a commerce- and progress-oriented culture. This condition is caused by client preconceptions and their strong need to have theses represented; the taste of the fast-growing Chinese middle and upper classes, and their desire to display their newly-acquired wealth in a respective living environment; and also the different educational backgrounds of the architects involved.

Whereas garden architecture on a small scale has been a tradition in China for centuries, landscape architecture has only existed as an independent planning discipline for the last 20 years. The field of landscape architecture takes on particular significance in light of current urban expansion and environmental problems; significant not only in enhancing the landscape in cities, but also in developing ideas to solve problems related to ecology, infrastructure and use. Solutions can hardly be gathered from limited traditional understanding of the field, using the restricted garden design model, or be borrowed from foreign examples. How can a landscape architect in China fulfil the needs and aspirations of modern man to become international, and also satisfy local and regional requirements?

ヤ/LOVE冰oΟ 11:47:23

Most frequently it is young offices, established by architects who have often studied abroad, that have new answers in developing a modern understanding in the fild. They are trying to provide now stimulus to the field and to question current trends in the practice. One representative of the young Chinese landscape architects is Yu Kongjian. He grew up in a small viallage in the Zhejiang province, characterized by its traditional rural use of open spaces. He studied garden planning at the Peking Forestry University, the largest and oldest landscape architecture school in China (founded in 1952). Later he earned his doctorate at Harvard. After returning to China in 1998, he established Turenscape in Peking. The office, with a staff of approximately 200, is the largest private landscape architecture firm in China today.

Yu Kongjian has described today's China as having an identity crisis as well as an ecological crisis. He is striving to create an appropriately modern and suitably Chinese style in his publications, in the new landscape architecture program at the Peking University he established, and in his projects. While doing so he is seeking a strong relationship to the Genius Loci: he is developing approaches to design which stem from a particular place, the context of its natural and cultural landscape, and the associated local traditions of the people. In formulating his designs he is creating a new consciousness for the beauty of the Chinese cultural landscape and indigenous vegetation - a completely new concept for China.

In designing the architecture school campus in Shenyang, Turenscape captures the original structure of the agricultural landscape by using the path divisions between the rice field parcels. The configuration of the design is rectilinear; its motif is unusual for a university campus - that of a productive cultural landscape whose products are harvested and sold as souvenirs. The site is broken into spaces varying in size, divided by a strong framework of diagonally arranged rows of single trees and tree groves, as well as a rectilinear axis of walkways. The geometry of the park is taken from the rational order of the surrounding agricultural fields, and the diagonal orientation of the parcels. The design combines the artificiality of a French Baroque garden with cultural and wild vegetation plantings in an exemplary, ornamented grid - an unusual learning environment for the architecture students.

Another project is the Zhongguancun Life Science Park in Peking, which uses a central park area as a wetland watering system. A network of walkways leads one through a mosaic of different native aquatic plants and reeds. Paths on different levels linked by steps make various connections possible across areas with varying water levels.

In the Yongning River Park in Taizhou, an area transformed into a native reed and grass landscape was once the diked banks of a river, previously secured by strong concrete walls. Through this change additional flood plains were returned to the river, which also helps water purification of the natural wetlands. Within the park is an organically shaped wetland system on the same level as the river. The figure of the wetlands is contrasted by a matrix of square bastions planted with a grid of Chinese redwoods (Metasequoia glyptostroboides). This tree is very common to the watercourse landscape of southern China. Circulation within the park is provided by an axial grid of paths, partly compreised of elevated bridges and walkways. An unsusual feature of the park is the scattered colourful square boxes which serve as special areas for the visitors.

In the Turenscape projects described, new issues for China are apparent. These concern ecological and dynamic processes of nature, such as changing water levels, seasons, ecosystem development, vegetation and harvests. These considerations, plus the design philosophy of using native wild and cultural vegetation, retaining and utilizing historical structures and minimizing the design language, enable Turenscape to create new formulas for combining Chinese cultural identity with international examples.