链接
牛顿迭代
假设我们要解方程 f ( g ( x ) ) = 0 f(g(x))=0 f(g(x))=0,其中 g ( x ) g(x) g(x)是一个多项式
假设已经知道 g 0 ( x ) ≡ g ( x ) ( m o d x n ) g_0(x) \equiv g(x) ( \mod x^n) g0(x)≡g(x)(modxn)
将 f ( g ( x ) ) f(g(x)) f(g(x))在 g ( x ) = g 0 ( x ) g(x)=g_0(x) g(x)=g0(x)处进行泰勒展开
f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( g 0 ( x ) ) + f ′ ( g 0 ( x ) ) ( g ( x ) − g 0 ( x ) ) + 1 2 ! f ′ ′ ( g 0 ( x ) ) ( g ( x ) − g 0 ( x ) ) 2 + … f(g(x)) = f(g_0(x)) + f'(g_0(x))(g(x)-g_0(x)) + \frac{1}{2!}f''(g_0(x))(g(x)-g_0(x))^2 + \dots f(g(x))=f(g0(x))+f′(g0(x))(g(x)−g0(x))+2!1f′′(g0(x))(g(x)−g0(x))2+…
注意有一个事情就是 g ( x ) − g 0 ( x ) ≡ 0 ( m o d x n ) g(x)-g_0(x) \equiv 0 (\mod x^n) g(x)−g0(x)≡0(modxn),所以 ( g ( x ) − g 0 ( x ) ) 2 ≡ 0 ( m o d x 2 n ) (g(x)-g_0(x))^2 \equiv 0(\mod x^{2n}) (g(x)−g0(x))2≡0(modx2n),稍微想想就知道当 k ≥ 2 k \ge 2 k≥2时, ( g ( x ) − g 0 ( x ) ) k ≡ 0 ( m o d x 2 n ) (g(x)-g_0(x))^k \equiv 0(\mod x^{2n}) (g(x)−g0(x))k≡0(modx2n)
那么上面的泰勒展开式我给他两边模 x 2 n x^{2n} x2n
就得到
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0 = f(g_0(x)) + f'(g_0(x))(g(x)-g_0(x)) (\mod x^{2n})
0=f(g0(x))+f′(g0(x))(g(x)−g0(x))(modx2n)
然后整理得到
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g(x) \equiv g_0(x)-\frac{f(g_0(x))}{f'(g_0(x))} (\mod x^{2n})
g(x)≡g0(x)−f′(g0(x))f(g0(x))(modx2n)
上述公式告诉我们这样一件事情:如果求出了 g ( x ) g(x) g(x)的前面 n n n个系数,那么我我可以利用牛顿迭代的公式立刻再求出接下来的 n n n个系数
因此就可以得到大部分方程的倍增解法
运用牛顿迭代解决开方
我们要解决的是这样的问题:
给定 A ( x ) A(x) A(x),求 B ( x ) B(x) B(x),使得 [ x 0 ] B ( x ) = [ x 0 ] A ( x ) [x^0]B(x) = \sqrt{[x^0]A(x)} [x0]B(x)=[x0]A(x),并且 B 2 ( x ) = A ( x ) B^2(x)=A(x) B2(x)=A(x)
那就简单,构造 f ( B ( x ) ) = B 2 ( x ) − A ( x ) f(B(x)) = B^2(x)-A(x) f(B(x))=B2(x)−A(x),直接套公式就可以了
代码
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
#include <ext/pb_ds/assoc_container.hpp>
#include <ext/pb_ds/tree_policy.hpp>
#define iinf 0x3f3f3f3f
#define linf (1ll<<60)
#define eps 1e-8
#define maxn 1000010
#define maxe 1000010
#define cl(x) memset(x,0,sizeof(x))
#define rep(i,a,b) for(i=a;i<=b;i++)
#define drep(i,a,b) for(i=a;i>=b;i--)
#define em(x) emplace(x)
#define emb(x) emplace_back(x)
#define emf(x) emplace_front(x)
#define fi first
#define se second
#define de(x) cerr<<#x<<" = "<<x<<endl
using namespace std;
using namespace __gnu_pbds;
typedef long long ll;
typedef pair<int,int> pii;
typedef pair<ll,ll> pll;
ll read(ll x=0)
{
ll c, f(1);
for(c=getchar();!isdigit(c);c=getchar())if(c=='-')f=-f;
for(;isdigit(c);c=getchar())x=x*10+c-0x30;
return f*x;
}
struct EasyMath
{
ll prime[maxn], phi[maxn], mu[maxn];
bool mark[maxn];
ll fastpow(ll a, ll b, ll c)
{
ll t(a%c), ans(1ll);
for(;b;b>>=1,t=t*t%c)if(b&1)ans=ans*t%c;
return ans;
}
void exgcd(ll a, ll b, ll &x, ll &y)
{
if(!b){x=1,y=0;return;}
ll xx, yy;
exgcd(b,a%b,xx,yy);
x=yy, y=xx-a/b*yy;
}
ll inv(ll x, ll p) //p是素数
{return fastpow(x%p,p-2,p);}
ll inv2(ll a, ll p)
{
ll x, y;
exgcd(a,p,x,y);
return (x+p)%p;
}
void shai(ll N)
{
ll i, j;
for(i=2;i<=N;i++)mark[i]=false;
*prime=0;
phi[1]=mu[1]=1;
for(i=2;i<=N;i++)
{
if(!mark[i])prime[++*prime]=i, mu[i]=-1, phi[i]=i-1;
for(j=1;j<=*prime and i*prime[j]<=N;j++)
{
mark[i*prime[j]]=true;
if(i%prime[j]==0)
{
phi[i*prime[j]]=phi[i]*prime[j];
break;
}
mu[i*prime[j]]=-mu[i];
phi[i*prime[j]]=phi[i]*(prime[j]-1);
}
}
}
ll CRT(vector<ll> a, vector<ll> m) //要求模数两两互质
{
ll M=1, ans=0, n=a.size(), i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)M*=m[i];
for(i=0;i<n;i++)(ans+=a[i]*(M/m[i])%M*inv2(M/m[i],m[i]))%=M;
return ans;
}
}em;
#define mod 998244353ll
struct NTT
{
ll n;
vector<ll> R;
void init(ll bound) //bound是积多项式的最高次幂
{
ll L(0);
for(n=1;n<=bound;n<<=1,L++);
R.resize(n);
for(ll i=0;i<n;i++)R[i]=(R[i>>1]>>1)|((i&1)<<(L-1));
}
void ntt(vector<ll>& a, int opt)
{
ll i, j, k, wn, w, x, y, inv(em.fastpow(n,mod-2,mod));
for(i=0;i<n;i++)if(i>R[i])swap(a[i],a[R[i]]);
for(i=1;i<n;i<<=1)
{
if(opt==1)wn=em.fastpow(3,(mod-1)/(i<<1),mod);
else wn=em.fastpow(3,(mod-1-(mod-1)/(i<<1)),mod);
for(j=0;j<n;j+=i<<1)
for(w=1,k=0;k<i;k++,w=w*wn%mod)
{
x=a[k+j], y=a[k+j+i]*w%mod;
a[k+j]=(x+y)%mod, a[k+j+i]=(x-y)%mod;
}
}
if(opt==-1)for(i=0;i<n;i++)(a[i]*=inv)%=mod;
}
};
struct Poly
{
vector<ll> v;
ll n; //n是最高次项的次数
Poly(ll N){v.resize(N+1);n=N;}
Poly(const Poly& p){v=p.v; n=p.n;}
void resize(ll N){n=N; v.resize(N+1);}
ll& operator[](ll id){return v[id];}
void show()
{
printf("n=%lld\n",n);
ll i; rep(i,0,n-1)printf("%lldx^%lld + ",(v[i]+mod)%mod,i);
printf("%lldx^%lld\n",(v[n]+mod)%mod,n);
}
};
Poly operator*(ll x, Poly A)
{
x%=mod;
ll i; rep(i,0,A.n)(A[i]*=x)%=mod;
return A;
}
Poly operator+(Poly A, Poly B)
{
ll i;
Poly C(max(A.n,B.n));
A.resize(C.n), B.resize(C.n);
rep(i,0,C.n)C[i]=A[i]+B[i];
return C;
}
Poly operator*(Poly A, Poly B)
{
NTT ntt;
ll i, n=A.n+B.n;
ntt.init(A.n+B.n);
A.resize(ntt.n-1), B.resize(ntt.n-1);
ntt.ntt(A.v,1), ntt.ntt(B.v,1);
Poly C(ntt.n-1);
rep(i,0,C.n)C[i]=(A[i]*B[i])%mod;
ntt.ntt(C.v,-1);
C.resize(n);
return C;
}
Poly operator~(Poly F)
{
Poly H(0), f(0);
ll i, j;
H[0]=em.inv(F[0],mod);
for(i=1;(i>>1)<=F.n;i*=2)
{
f.resize(i-1);
rep(j,0,min(i-1,F.n))f[j]=F[j];
Poly t=H*H*f; t.resize(i-1);
H=2*H+(-1)*t;
}
H.resize(F.n);
return H;
}
Poly sqrt(Poly A, ll o) //o是A常数项的平方根
{
Poly B(0), a(0);
ll i, j;
B[0]=o;
a[0]=A[0];
for(i=1;i<=A.n;i*=2)
{
a.resize(2*i-1);
rep(j,0,min(2*i-1,A.n))a[j]=A[j];
B = B + ( a + (-1)*B*B ) * ~(2*B);
B.resize(2*i-1);
}
B.resize(A.n);
return B;
}
int main()
{
ll n=read(), i;
Poly A(n-1);
rep(i,0,n-1)A[i]=read()%mod;
auto B=sqrt(A,+1);
rep(i,0,A.n)printf("%lld ",(B[i]+mod)%mod);
return 0;
}