目录
- 7 Concrete towers and foundations 混凝土塔架和基础
- 7.1 General 概述
- 7.2 Basis of design 设计基础
- 7.3 Materials 材料
- 7.4 Durability 耐久性
- 7.5 Structural analysis 结构分析
- 7.6 Concrete to concrete joints 混凝土节点
- 7.7 Ultimate limit state 承载力极限状态
- 7.8 Fatigue limit state 疲劳极限状态
- 7.9 Serviceability limit state 正常使用极限状态
- 7.10 Execution 施工
写在前面: IEC61400-6是针对风电机组塔架机基础设计的规范性文件，这一系列的文章主要针对IEC61400-6 进行翻译。第7章主要讲述混凝土塔架及基础的设计，对于大多数从事塔架设计的人的来说，混凝土塔架是一个相对陌生的概念。希望这些译本能够给从业人员带来帮助，也欢迎各位大神前来指点。
7 Concrete towers and foundations 混凝土塔架和基础
7.1 General 概述
Concrete design principles are mostly well defined and documented in the literature, including reference standards. Clause 7 provides additional or more detailed rules and guidance that are specific to onshore wind turbine towers and foundations and complement the more general requirements of existing standards.
混凝土构件设计的一般规定可参考已有的文献和标准，作为对这些出具一般性要求的文献和标准的补充，本章针对陆上风电机组塔架及基础给出更细致的规则和指导。
Clause 7 provides requirements in the form of general statements and analytical methods. Guidance on acceptable calculation methods which are considered to comply with the requirements are presented in Annex H to Annex K.
第7章以一般性陈述和分析方法的形式给出要求。可接受的指导计算方法应考虑与附录H~附录K给出的要求一致。
7.2 Basis of design 设计基础
7.2.1 Reference standard for concrete design 混凝土设计参考标准
The reference standard shall comply with the basic principles of IEC 61400-1 or IEC 61400-2 and should be in compliance with ISO 19338. The reference standard shall give the principles required for the design against fatigue for all possible failure modes.
参考标准应符合国际规范 IEC 61400-1、 IEC 61400-2 和 ISO 19338 的基本要求，并包括混凝土构件不同疲劳失效模式下的设计规定。
7.2.2 Partial safety factors 分项安全系数
The partial safety factors given in IEC 61400-1, IEC 61400-2 and in 5.4 as well as the following factors shall be applied for design of concrete structures as the minimum requirements. The safety factors from the selected reference standard should be considered, and they shall fulfil at least the target reliability of IEC standards.
IEC 61400-1, IEC 61400-2以及5.4节给出的分项安全系数应作为混凝土结构设计中的最低要求。采用的参考标准中的安全系数也应该考虑，并且至少满足IEC标准的目标可靠度。
For the general verifications at the SLS, the partial safety factor for the materials can in general be taken as γ M = 1 , 0 \gamma _{M}=1,0 γM=1,0.
正常使用极限状态下的验算可取材料分项系数为 γ M = 1.0 \gamma _{M}=1.0 γM=1.0 。
In the case of prestressed concrete in ULS, the prestress losses and possible variations in the prestress shall be considered. The variations shall be considered by applying the least favourable of the factors γ f , p r e s t r e s s , f a v o u r a b l e \gamma _{f,prestress,favourable} γf,prestress,favourable and γ f , p r e s t r e s s , u n f a v o u r a b l e \gamma _{f,prestress,unfavourable} γf,prestress,unfavourable·
预应力混凝土结构在承载力极限状态下的验算应该考虑预应力损失和变化。按照对结构最不利的状态采用系数 γ f , p r e s t r e s s , f a v o u r a b l e \gamma _{f,prestress,favourable} γf,prestress,favourable 和 γ f , p r e s t r e s s , u n f a v o u r a b l e \gamma _{f,prestress,unfavourable} γf,prestress,unfavourable 。
In the case of prestressed concrete in FLS and the SLS the variations shall be considered by applying the least favourable of the factors γ s u p \gamma _{sup} γsup and γ i n f \gamma _{inf} γinf . For FLS and SLS, the recommended factors to be used for post-tensioning with bonded tendons are γ s u p = 1 , 1 \gamma _{sup}=1,1 γsup=1,1 and γ s u p = 0 , 9 \gamma _{sup}=0,9 γsup=0,9 , but the recommended factors for post-tensioning with unbonded tendons and for pre-tensioning are γ s u p = 1 , 05 \gamma _{sup}=1,05 γsup=1,05 and γ s u p = 0 , 95 \gamma _{sup}=0,95 γsup=0,95.
疲劳极限状态和正常使用极限状态下的预应力混凝土需要通过采用系数 γ s u p \gamma _{sup} γsup 和 γ i n f \gamma _{inf} γinf 的最不利影响考虑预应力的变化，有粘结预应力筋取为 γ s u p = 1.1 \gamma _{sup}=1.1 γsup=1.1 和 γ i n f = 0.9 \gamma _{inf}=0.9 γinf=0.9 ，无粘结预应力筋取为 γ s u p = 1.05 \gamma _{sup}=1.05 γsup=1.05 和 γ i n f = 0.95 \gamma _{inf}=0.95 γinf=0.95 。
When measures are taken to reduce the uncertainty on the prestress load, the factors γ s u p \gamma _{sup} γsup and γ i n f \gamma _{inf} γinf can be taken as γ s u p = γ i n f = 1 , 0 \gamma _{sup}=\gamma _{inf}=1,0 γsup=γinf=1,0. While a high accuracy of the tensioning devices may improve the accuracy of the initial level of prestress, the remaining uncertainty with respect to the losses of prestress shall also be considered if rsup and rinf shall be modified.
当采用了有效措施降低预应力荷载测量的不确定度时， γ s u p \gamma _{sup} γsup 和 γ i n f \gamma _{inf} γinf 可以取为 γ s u p = γ i n f = 1.0 \gamma _{sup}=\gamma _{inf}=1.0 γsup=γinf=1.0 。虽然张紧装置的高精度可以提高初始预应力水平的精度，但如果要修改 γ s u p \gamma _{sup} γsup 和 γ i n f \gamma _{inf} γinf ，还应考虑与预应力损失有关的剩余不确定性。
Where high resistance of a member is unfavourable, an upper value of the characteristic resistance shall be used in order to give a low probability of failure of the adjoining structure.
当构件承载力较高产生不利影响时，应采用承载力特征值的上限值确保相邻结构的失效概率最低。
The upper value shall be chosen with the same level of probability of exceedance as the probability of lower values being underscored. In such cases, the partial safety factor for material shall be 1,0 for calculating the resistance that is used when actions are applied on adjoining members.
上限值的选取，应选择与其对应的下限值有相同超越概率的值。在这种情况下，计算当作用施加在相邻构件上的抗力时，材料的分项安全系数应为 1.0。
7.2.3 Basic variables 基本变量
7.2.3.1 Thermal actions 温度作用
7.2.3.1.1 General requirements 一般要求
Concrete towers are subject to the induced stress effect of temperature variations with respect to the temperature at the time of erection as well as to temperature gradients within the tower cross-section as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6 - Thermal effects around tower cross-section
混凝土塔筒的设计应考虑横截面温度梯度的影响和吊装阶段温度应力的变化，如图 6 所示。
These characteristic temperature actions shall be considered in the design as explained in the following.
a) Δ T 1 \Delta T_{1} ΔT1 is a uniform temperature difference with respect to the temperature at the time of erection (constant temperature along circumference and across wall thickness). Δ T 1 \Delta T_{1} ΔT1 shall be taken as the least favourable of
- T e x t r e m e , m a x − T e r e c t i o n , m i n T_{extreme,max}-T_{erection,min} Textreme,max−Terection,min
- T e x t r e m e , m i n − T e r e c t i o n , m a x T_{extreme,min}-T_{erection,max} Textreme,min−Terection,max
where T e x t r e m e , m i n T_{extreme,min} Textreme,min and T e x t r e m e , m a x T_{extreme,max} Textreme,max are the extreme temperature range as defined in IEC 61400-1 :2019, 6.4.2.1.
T e r e c t i o n , m i n T_{erection,min} Terection,min and T e r e c t i o n , m a x T_{erection,max} Terection,max are the allowable temperature range to be defined for the erection of the tower.
This temperature action may generary be neglected provided the tower does not incorporate or is not restrained by materials of differing thermal expansion coefficients. On the basis of Δ T 1 \Delta T_{1} ΔT1, areasonable assumption shall be made for the temperature difference between the tower and foundation which may cause tension due to restraint.
设计中应考虑这些典型的温度作用，如下所述：
a)
Δ
T
1
\Delta T_{1}
ΔT1 是相对于安装时温度的均匀温差（沿圆周和壁厚的恒定温度）。 ∆T1应取下面的最不利情况：
- T e x t r e m e , m a x − T e r e c t i o n , m i n T_{extreme,max}-T_{erection,min} Textreme,max−Terection,min
- T e x t r e m e , m i n − T e r e c t i o n , m a x T_{extreme,min}-T_{erection,max} Textreme,min−Terection,max
其中：
T
e
x
t
r
e
m
e
,
m
i
n
T_{extreme,min}
Textreme,min 和
T
e
x
t
r
e
m
e
,
m
a
x
T_{extreme,max}
Textreme,max为《IEC 61400-1:2019》 6.4.2.1所定义的极端温度范围。
T
e
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
,
m
i
n
T_{erection,min}
Terection,min 和
T
e
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
,
m
a
x
T_{erection,max}
Terection,max 是塔架安装时确定的允许温度范围。
如果塔架不包含或不受具有不同热膨胀系数的材料的约束，通常可以忽略此温度作用。由于可能引起约束的张力，在考虑∆T1时，应合理地假设塔架和基础之间的温度差。
b) Δ T 2 = ± 15 K \Delta T_{2}=\pm 15K ΔT2=±15K is a cosine shaped temperature difference caused by solar irradiation on one side of the tower (constant temperature across wall thickness and cosine shaped along the circumference).
Additional second order loads ( P − Δ e f f e c t P-\Delta effect P−Δeffect) resulting from the deflection due to Δ T 2 \Delta T_{2} ΔT2 may be neglected if a tower misalignment of at least 5mm/m lateral deflection per metre height is applied as the geometric tolerance in the structural design of the tower (differential settlement of the foundation shall be considered separately as per 8.5.3.3).
Furthermore, it may be assumed that restraint caused by Δ T 2 \Delta T_{2} ΔT2 is covered by Δ T 3 \Delta T_{3} ΔT3 if the bending moment in the wall caused by Δ T 3 \Delta T_{3} ΔT3 is calculated based on linear analysis (uncracked cross section, linear stress-strain relationship and mean value of the modulus of elasticity).
b)
Δ
T
2
=
±
15
K
\Delta T_{2}=\pm 15K
ΔT2=±15K 是由于太阳照射在塔的一侧而引起的余弦形温差（沿壁厚的恒定温度和沿圆周的余弦形）。
在塔架结构设计中，如果将每米高度至少 5 毫米/米的侧向挠度作为几何公差，则不考虑由于
Δ
T
2
\Delta T_{2}
ΔT2引起的挠度产生的的附加二阶载荷（
P
−
Δ
效
应
P-\Delta 效应
P−Δ效应，见 3.5.3 节）。
此外，如果基于线性分析（横截面不开裂、线性应力-应变关系和均值弹性模量）计算由
Δ
T
3
\Delta T_{3}
ΔT3引起的筒壁弯矩，则可以假定
Δ
T
2
\Delta T_{2}
ΔT2引起的约束被
Δ
T
3
\Delta T_{3}
ΔT3覆盖。
c) Δ T 3 = ± 15 K \Delta T_{3}=\pm 15K ΔT3=±15K is a temperature difference between inside and outside wall surfaces (constant temperature along the circumference, varying linearly across the wall thickness). The value of ± 15 K \pm 15K ±15K is intended to cover environmental temperature changes; Δ T 3 = ± 15 K \Delta T_{3}=\pm 15K ΔT3=±15K may need to be increased if significant other heat sources are to be placed in or near the wind turbine tower.
Effects caused by the release of hydration heat in in-situ concrete towers are not included in Δ T 1 − Δ T 3 \Delta T_{1}-\Delta T_{3} ΔT1−ΔT3 and shall be taken into account separately.
The above mentioned temperature actions generally cover the normal environmental conditions defined in IEC61400-1 or IEC61400-2. Special regional climatic conditions outside the normal environmental conditions shall be taken into account when applying temperature actions.
The different temperature components shall be superimposed so that the characteristic temperature action Δ T k \Delta T_{k} ΔTk shall be taken as the least favourable of:
Δ T 1 + Δ T 2 ; \Delta T_{1}+\Delta T_{2}; ΔT1+ΔT2; Δ T 3 ; \Delta T_{3}; ΔT3; ( Δ T 1 + Δ T 2 ) + 0 , 75 Δ T 3 ; (\Delta T_{1}+\Delta T_{2})+0,75\Delta T_{3}; (ΔT1+ΔT2)+0,75ΔT3; 0 , 35 ( Δ T 1 + Δ T 2 ) + Δ T 3 . 0,35(\Delta T_{1}+\Delta T_{2})+\Delta T_{3}. 0,35(ΔT1+ΔT2)+ΔT3.
c)
Δ
T
3
=
±
15
K
\Delta T_{3}=\pm 15K
ΔT3=±15K是塔筒内外壁表面之间的温差（沿圆周恒定温度，沿壁厚线性变化）。
±
15
K
\pm 15K
±15K的值旨在覆盖环境温度变化；如果将重要的其他热源放置在风电机组塔内或附近，
±
15
K
\pm 15K
±15K可能需要增加。由于在现浇混凝土塔中释放水化热而产生的影响不包括在
Δ
T
1
−
Δ
T
3
\Delta T_{1}-\Delta T_{3}
ΔT1−ΔT3中，应对其单独考虑。
上述温度作用总体上涵盖了 IEC 61400-1 或 IEC 61400-2 中规定的正常环境条件。在应用温度作用时，应考虑正常环境条件以外的特殊区域气候条件。
不同的温度（作用）组分应该叠加考虑，因此温度作用特征值
Δ
T
k
\Delta T_{k}
ΔTk 应取下面的最不利组合：
Δ
T
1
+
Δ
T
2
;
\Delta T_{1}+\Delta T_{2};
ΔT1+ΔT2;
Δ
T
3
;
\Delta T_{3};
ΔT3;
(
Δ
T
1
+
Δ
T
2
)
+
0.75
Δ
T
3
;
(\Delta T_{1}+\Delta T_{2})+0.75\Delta T_{3};
(ΔT1+ΔT2)+0.75ΔT3;
0.35
(
Δ
T
1
+
Δ
T
2
)
+
Δ
T
3
.
0.35(\Delta T_{1}+\Delta T_{2})+\Delta T_{3}.
0.35(ΔT1+ΔT2)+ΔT3.
7.2.3.1.2 Ultimate limit state requirements 承载力极限状态的要求
In the ULS, temperature actions shall be superimposed with the ultimate design loads F d F_{d} Fd of the load cases N according to Table2 of IEC 61400-1:2019. The partial safety factor for temperatu reactions shall be taken as γ f , t e m p = 1 , 35 \gamma_{f,temp}=1,35 γf,temp=1,35 so that Δ T d = γ f , t e m p Δ T k \Delta T_{d}=\gamma_{f,temp}\Delta T_{k} ΔTd=γf,tempΔTk. The least favourable of the following combinations shall be considered in the design.
F d + 0 , 6 Δ T k F_{d}+0,6\Delta T_{k} Fd+0,6ΔTk 0 , 6 F d + Δ T k 0,6F_{d}+\Delta T_{k} 0,6Fd+ΔTk
The psfm, γ f , t e m p \gamma_{f,temp} γf,temp may be reduced to 1,0 if the effects are determined based on linear elastic analysis.
承载力极限状态下，温度作用应与《IEC 61400-1:2019》表2中N类载荷工况的极限设计载荷Fd相叠加。温度反应的分项安全系数应取为
γ
f
,
t
e
m
p
=
1.35
\gamma_{f,temp}=1.35
γf,temp=1.35即
Δ
T
d
=
γ
f
,
t
e
m
p
Δ
T
k
\Delta T_{d}=\gamma_{f,temp}\Delta T_{k}
ΔTd=γf,tempΔTk。下列最不利组合应在设计中考虑：
F
d
+
0.6
Δ
T
k
F_{d}+0.6\Delta T_{k}
Fd+0.6ΔTk
0.6
F
d
+
Δ
T
k
0.6F_{d}+\Delta T_{k}
0.6Fd+ΔTk
当作用效应采用线弹性分析得到时，材料分项安全系数
γ
f
,
t
e
m
p
\gamma_{f,temp}
γf,temp可以降低为1.0。
7.2.3.1.3 Serviceability limit state requirements 正常使用极限状态的要求
In the SLS, temperature actions shall be superimposed with F S L S F_{SLS} FSLS, the ultimate load value of the applicable SLS load cases as defined in Annex H.
For load cases S2 and S3 (see 5.4.3), it suffices to consider the combination of F S L S + 0 , 6 Δ T k F_{SLS}+0,6\Delta T_{k} FSLS+0,6ΔTk in the design, while for load case S1 also the combination of 0 , 6 F S L S + Δ T k 0,6F_{SLS}+\Delta T_{k} 0,6FSLS+ΔTk shall be considered.
在正常使用极限状态下，温度作用应与
F
S
L
S
F_{SLS}
FSLS叠加，适用的正常使用极限状态载荷工况的极限值在附录H中给出定义。
对于工况S2和S3（见5.4.3条），考虑组合
F
S
L
S
+
0.6
Δ
T
k
F_{SLS}+0.6\Delta T_{k}
FSLS+0.6ΔTk进行设计，对于S1工况还应考虑 组合
0.6
F
S
L
S
+
Δ
T
k
0.6F_{SLS}+\Delta T_{k}
0.6FSLS+ΔTk。
7.2.3.2 Prestress 预应力
The prestress of concrete structures considered in 7.2.3.2 is applied by tendons made of high strength steel (wires, strands or bars) or high-strength bolts.
Tendons and bolts may be embedded in the concrete. They may be pre-tensioned and bonded or post-tensioned and bonded or unbonded.
Tendons may also be external to the structure with points of contact occurring at deviators and anchorages.
混凝土结构的预应力通过高强钢制成的筋材(钢丝、钢绞线或或钢棒)或高强螺栓施加。
预应力筋材和螺栓可以位于混泥土内部，可以采用有粘结的先张法或者后张法（有粘结或无粘结）工艺。
并通过先张法或后张法内嵌在混凝土结构中预压筋材和螺栓宜设置在混凝土截面外部，通过转向器和锚具沿长度方向将其固定。
7.3 Materials 材料
The concrete structure materials shall be in accordance with ISO 22965-1 and ISO 22965-2 for concrete and ISO 6934 (all parts) and ISO 6935 (all parts) for reinforcement unless requirements in the selected reference standards are more critical. In either case, the requirements of this document will supersede.
混凝土结构的混凝土材料应该满足ISO 22965-1 和 ISO 22965-2中混凝土部分的规定，钢筋材料应满足ISO 6934和ISO 6935的全部要求，除非所采用的参考标准更为严格。任何情况下，可以用本标准的要求进行替代。
7.4 Durability 耐久性
7.4.1 Durability requirements 耐久性要求
In order to achieve the required design lifetime of the structure, adequate measures shall be taken to protect each structural element against the relevant environmental actions. The requirements defined in the reference standard concerning durability shall be fulfilled.
为了实现结构的设计使用寿命要求，应采用适当的措施保证各结构单元承受相关的环境作用。参考标准中所定义的各项耐久性要求应该满足。
The requirements for durability shall be included when considering the following:
• structuraI conception;
• material selection;
• construction details;
• execution;
• quality control;
• inspection;
• verifications;
• special measures (e.g. use of stainless steel, coatings, and cathodic protection).
考虑以下因素时，应包括耐久性要求：
• 结构概念；
• 材料选择；
• 细部构造；
• 施工；
• 质量控制；
• 检验；
• 特殊措施（如：使用不锈钢、涂料和阴极保护）。
7.4.2 Exposure classes 暴露等级
If not specified in the reference standard, the exposure classes as defined in ISO 22965-1 may be used.
如果参考标准中没有规定，可使用 ISO 22965-1 中规定的暴露等级。
7.4.3 Concrete cover 混凝土保护层
The concrete cover requirements shall include the exposure class, the quality of the concrete and the design lifetime of the structure. Other parameters may be of importance in specific cases.
The nominal concrete cover shall be specified on the construction drawings or specifications.
混凝土保护层要求应考虑结构的暴露等级、混凝土质量以及设计使用寿命。特定情况下还应考虑其他参数的重要性。
标称混凝土保护层应在施工图纸或规范中规定。
7.5 Structural analysis 结构分析
7.5.1 Finite element analysis 有限元分析
A finite element model shall be suitable for the purposes of the investigation. The following items shall be considered if they are expected to affect the relevant results of the analysis to a significant extent.
- The structure shall be in equilibrium with the applied loading and boundary conditions.
- The order and type of each element shall be sufficient to capture the expected patterns of deformations.
- A mesh sensitivity study is usually required to assess if the model is adequately predicting the deformation of the structure, and thereby the load-distribution within the structure.
- Second order deformat ions and three-dimensional effect shall be considered.
- The compatibility of deformations shall be considered, including strain offsets between materials types, and the decomposition of strain. Load-path dependency may also need to be considered.
- The inelastic response of materials, including cracking of concrete and yield of reinforcements, shall be considered when necessary. Since the principle of superposition does not apply when materials exhibit an inelastic response, a separate analysis is required for each factored load combination.
- The degradation of resistance mechanisms, such as bond, slip resistance along cracks, spalling, and other factors that affect the stiffness and strength of structural components shall be considered.
- Time-dependent effects, such as creep of concrete and relaxation of prestressing, shall be considered when the effects are significant.
More detailed guidance on finite element analysis can be found in Annex I.
当下列各项被认为会对相关分析结果有重大影响时应予以考虑。
- 结构应与加载和边界条件保持平衡。
- 每个单元的顺序和类型应足以捕捉预期的变形模式。
- 通常需要通过网格敏感性研究评估模型是否充分预测了结构的变形，进从而充分预测了结构内的荷载分布。
- 应考虑二阶变形和三维效应。
- 应考虑变形的相容性，包括材料类型之间的应变偏移和分解。可能还需要考虑荷载路径依赖关系。
- 必要时应考虑材料的非弹性响应，包括混凝土的开裂和钢筋的屈服。由于叠加原理不适
用于材料表现非弹性响应时，需要对考虑的每个荷载组合进行单独分析。 - 抗力机制的退化，如粘结、沿裂缝的抗滑性、剥落以及其他影响结构构件刚度和强度的
因素应予以考虑。 - 当影响显著时，应考虑与时间有关的影响，如混凝土的徐变和预应力的松弛。
有限元分析的更多指导可以参考附录I。
7.5.2 Foundation slabs 基础板
Solid foundation slabs subjected to two-dimensional bending shall be analysed with one or more of the following methods.
- Analysis based on linear elasticity
This method is based on the theory of elasticity adopting a linear moment-curvature relationship. It may be used for serviceability, fatigue, and ultimate limit states.- Analysis according to linear elasticity with limited redistribution of bending moments
Linear analysis with limited redistribution of the moments may be applied to the analysis of foundation slabs for the verification at the ultimate limit state only. The reduction of the moment shall be performed assuming the average value for an appropriate width, providing that the average moments for the same width at the corresponding section are adjusted to satisfy equilibrium. The rotation capacity needs to be checked.- Plastic analysis
Statically admissible plastic moment fields which satisfy the equilibrium condition may be found directly (e.g. by applying the strip method) or by starting from a linear analysis. This method may be used for the ultimate limit state only.- Non-linear analysis
The nonlinear analysis covers ULS, FLS, and SLS, provided that equilibrium and compatibility are satisfied and adequate nonlinear behaviour for materials is assumed.
二维弯曲作用下的基础板应按以下一项或多项方法进行分析。
- 线弹性分析
该方法基于采用线性弯矩曲率关系的弹性理论模型，适用于正常使用、疲劳以及承载力极限状态。 - 有限弯矩重分布的线弹性分析
该方法仅适用于承载力极限状态下对基础板的分析。在合适的平均宽度下，假如对应截面同样宽度范围内的平均弯矩值可被调整到满足平衡条件时，可以采用降低的弯矩值。此时需要检验（塑性铰部位的）转动能力。 - 塑性分析
该方法通过直接建立（如应用条带法）或线性分析建立满足平衡条件的静态容许塑性弯矩场进行分析。该方法仅适用于承载力极限状态。 - 非线性分析
非线性分析适用于承载力极限状态、疲劳极限状态和正常使用极限状态，力的平衡与变形协调条件需要满足，并且应充分考虑材料的非线性行为。
7.5.3 Regions with discontinuity in geometry or loads 几何或荷载不连续区域
Discontinuity regions shall be assessed with force models which have been validated with test resuIts and/or theoretical considerations. These models may be strut-and-tie model systems, stress fields, or similar, that satisfy equilibrium conditions.
应使用已通过试验结果或理论分析验证的计算模型对不连续。区域的设计进行验算，具体可采用满足平衡条件的拉压杆模型或类似的应力场模型。
If there is no recognized calculation model for the member in question, the geometry of the model may be determined from the stress condition for a homogeneous un-cracked structure in accordance with the theory of elasticity.
如果所讨论的构件没有公认的计算模型，则可以根据弹性理论，由均匀无裂纹结构的应力条件
来确定模型的几何形状。
Methods for determining the strength of a load-resisting truss (consisting of struts, ties, and joints (or nodes)) shall follow the reference standards including maximum concrete stress capacities for struts and nodal regions, and rules for determining the dimensions of struts, ties, and nodal regions.
确定承重桁架（由支柱、拉杆和接头（或节点）组成）强度的方法应遵循参考标准，包括支柱和节点区域混凝土的最大许用应力，以及确定支柱、拉杆和节点区域尺寸的规则。
The shape of the load resisting truss is not prescribed by this document.
本文件未规定承重桁架的形状。
For the design of discontinuity regions in which a complex and likely indeterminate strut-andtie model is used, extra caution shall be taken to ensure that the members can obtain and maintain their capacity until the formation of a plastic truss mechanism.
对于在不连续区域的设计中采用复杂模型（甚至是超静定拉压杆模型）的，应特别注意确保构件能够获得并保持其承载力，直到形成塑性桁架机构。
More guidance regarding strut-and-tie modelling can be found in Annex K. See also the normative Annex J regarding connections between concrete foundations and steel towers.
有关拉压杆模型的更多指南，请参见附录 K。有关混凝土基础和钢塔之间规范性连接的请参见附录J.
7.5.4 Cast in anchor bolt arrangements 地脚螺栓连接
Bolts and anchor flanges cast into the concrete for anchorage of a steel tower or similar shall be designed according to Clause 6 where appropriate. The impact on the concrete shall be considered similar to impact from prestressing tendons.
铸入混凝土中用于钢塔或类似物锚固的螺栓和锚定法兰应根据第 6 条（如适用）进行设计。对混凝土的影响应视为类似于预应力钢筋束的影响。
7.6 Concrete to concrete joints 混凝土节点
Concrete to concrete joints are considered either interfaces between reinforced concrete cast in situ with significant delay or joints between prefabricated pieces (typically secured by means of post-tensioned reinforcement) with or without grout.
混凝土接缝分为两类，有相当延迟浇筑的现浇配筋混凝土交界面，以及通过后张预应力连接的预制混凝土接缝（灌浆或干式连接）。
Concrete to concrete joints shall be considered at the ULS, FLS and SLS verifications, for all concrete support structures.
对所有的混凝土支撑结构，其混凝土接缝均应考虑在承载力极限状态、正常使用极限状态以及疲劳极限状态下的验算。
Shear strength shall be verified in the joint, which is largely affected by the concrete coefficient of friction across the joint, reinforcing across a cast in situ joint and level of post-tensioning force across precast element joints. The coefficient of friction is a function of the surface roughness, which is commonly described by the surface roughness parameter，Ra. The coefficient of friction shall be verified according to the reference standard.
混凝土接缝间的抗剪强度与接缝间的摩擦系数和预压力有关，采用现浇时还与接缝内配筋率有关。摩擦系数取决于界面间粗糙度， 通常用表面粗糙度参数Ra来描述。应根据参考标准验证摩擦系数。
Due to the variable cyclic loading of the wind turbine, the risk of a reduction of the joint capacity in shear shall be considered.
由于风电机组的可变循环荷载，应考虑对接缝的抗剪承载力予以折减。
The compressive load capacity of the grout and the adjacent members shall be verified considering the stiffness of the grout and the geometry of the joint. Where imperfections such as mismatch in segmental construction can occur, these shall be considered in design. The induced transverse stresses shall be taken by reinforcement where necessary.
灌浆料和相邻构件的抗压强度应包括灌浆料刚度和接缝尺寸的影响，当接缝间存在施工误差(如无法对齐)时，应在设计中予以考虑。如无法满足设计要求应在接缝内进行配筋。
Non-linear analysis (load dependent stiffness) is generally required with reduced stiffness consideration of the joint (at ULS, it shall be assumed that opening or cracking can occur, unless the design is verified to avoid it).
在非线性分析中应考虑接缝刚度的减小(ULS 应考虑接缝开裂或张开的情况，除非在设计时予以避免)。
Special attention shall be applied in those zones subjected to stress concentration effects, such as pre-stressing anchorages, non-uniform contact areas and geometr ical and/or material discontinuities.
Tension capacity through the joint can be provided by post-tensioned bars, post-tensioned strand or passive reinforcement.
应对应力集中区域(预应力锚固端，非均匀接触区域，截面/材料不连续区域)进行重点设计。混凝土接缝间的抗拉强度由预应力钢绞线(钢棒)和配筋提供。
Tolerances at joints shall be defined in accordance with the execution requirements as stated in 7.10.Tolerances at joints shall be such as to allow parts to fit together as intended.
混凝土接缝间误差根据第 7.10 节的要求确定， 不应影响混凝土构件间的装配。
7.7 Ultimate limit state 承载力极限状态
7.7.1 General 概述
In general, the selected reference standard shall be followed for ULS design.
一般情况下，承载力极限状态设计应满足所选用的参考标准。
7.7.2 Shear and punching shear 剪切和冲切
The minimum amount of shear reinforcement required in the reference standard should be used even when it is not required to satisfy ULS requirements. This reinforcement will mitigate size effects in large members, and also help address the detrimental effects of cyclic shear actions. The spacing of this reinforcement should not exceed the limits of the reference standard.
无论是否要求满足承载力极限状态的要求，均应使用参考标准中要求的最小抗剪钢筋量。这种钢筋将减轻大型构件的尺寸效应，并有助于解决循环剪切作用的不利影响。该钢筋的间距不应超过参考标准的限制。
Punching shear failure shall be verified in regions where this phenomenon occurs, as it is the case, for example, for the tower to foundation connection.
对冲切破坏发生的区域，应进行冲剪破坏的验证，例如，对于塔架到基础连接的情况。
7.8 Fatigue limit state 疲劳极限状态
7.8.1 General 概述
In towers and foundations of prestressed and reinforced concrete, fatigue safety verifications shall be carried out for the concrete, reinforcing steel, prestressing steel, cast joints, etc.
在预应力混凝土和钢筋混凝土的塔架和基础中，应对混凝土、钢筋、预应力钢、铸造接头等进行疲劳安全验证。
Linear elastic models may generally be used, and reinforced concrete in tension is considered to be cracked. The ratio of moduli of elasticity for steel and concrete may be taken as α = 10 \alpha=10 α=10.
一般可采用线弹性模型，受拉的钢筋混凝土应视为开裂。钢材和混凝土的弹性模量比可取 α = 10 \alpha=10 α=10 。
The reference standard provides the principles required for the design against fatigue for all possible failure modes. This includes concrete in compression/compression or compression/tension; transverse shear considering both shear tension and shear compression; reinforcement considering both main bars and stirrups including bond failure; and prestressing reinforcement. Material standards can include certain fatigue-related requirements; these are often not adequate for wind turbine applications. The fatigue properties for wind turbine applications can be significantly different, also for materials that pass such general material requirements for fatigue. SN-curves representing the 95% survival probability shall be used for the design of reinforcement, and in particular for items that have stress concentrations such as couplers, end anchors and T-heads.
所有可能失效模式的抗疲劳设计所需的原则由参考标准提供。包括混凝土处于受压-受压和受压-受拉状态；横向剪切应考虑拉剪和压剪两种状态；对于钢筋应同时考虑主筋和箍筋（包括粘结破坏）以及预应力钢筋。材料标准宜包括某些疲劳相关的要求，这些要求通常不适用于风机机组。风电机组的疲劳性能可能会有很大的不同，对于满足疲劳一般材料要求的材料也是如此。钢筋的设计应选取代表 95%生存概率的 SN 曲线，尤其是对于具有应力集中的部位，如耦合器、端锚和 T 形头。
In general, it is recommended to avoid welding of reinforcement bars in wind turbine concrete structures. However, if this cannot be avoided, the SN-curve shall account for the effect of welding on the reinforcement properties.
一般情况下，建议避免焊接风机混凝土结构中的钢筋。但是，如果无法避免， SN 曲线应说明焊接对钢筋性能的影响。
NOTE Materials are often fatigue tested at 1 0 6 10^{6} 106 or 2 × 1 0 6 2\times 10^{6} 2×106 cycles for a given stress range. Wind turbine structures will typically experience 1 0 8 10^{8} 108 load cycles or more at strongly varying stress ranges, consequently some fatigue testing of materials will not be adequate for all situations.
注：在给定的应力范围内，材料通常在 1 0 6 10^{6} 106或 2 × 1 0 6 2\times 10^{6} 2×106个循环下进行疲劳试验。风电机组结构通常在强烈变化的应力范围内经历 1 0 8 10^{8} 108次或更多的荷载循环，因此，材料的一些疲劳试验并不适合所有情况。
The methods for fatigue safety verifications described in 7.8.2 and 7.8.3 will resuIt in a design which meets the target reliability level of this document. These methods shall be applied if no detailed methods exist in the reference standard or if methods in the reference standard are optional.
7.8.2 和 7.8.3 中所述的疲劳安全验证方法将产生满足本文件目标可靠性水平的设计。如果参考标准中没有详细的方法或参考标准中的方法是可选的，则应采用这些方法。
7.8.2 Reinforcement and prestressing steel fatigue failure 钢筋和预应力筋疲劳失效
When a detailed calculation over time is not carried out, the fatigue verifications for prestressing structures shall be carried out for the prestressing force immediately after removal of the stressing jack and for the prestressing force following creep, shrinkage and relaxation. The worst impact from creep, shrinkage and relaxation shall be considered.
当未进行随时间的详细计算时，应在拆除应力千斤顶后立即对预应力结构进行疲劳验证，并对徐变、收缩和松弛后的预应力进行疲劳验证。应考虑蠕变、收缩和松弛的最不利影响。
For the verification of reinforcing and prestressing steel, the fatigue strength SN curves according to the state-of-the-art may be applied, in which case appropriate manufacturing standards shall be used.
对于普通钢筋和预应力钢筋的验证，可采用通过最新技术获取的疲劳强度 SN 曲线，此时还应使用适当的制造标准。
7.8.3 Concrete fatigue failure 混凝土疲劳失效
For the verification of concrete, the state-of-the-art methods shall be applied together with the minimum partial safety factors specified in IEC 61400- 1 or IEC 61400-2, in which case appropriate manufacturing standards shall be used.
对于混凝土的疲劳验算，应使用最先进的方法并选取IEC 61400- 1 或 IEC 61400-2中指定的最小安全系数进行验证，此时应当采用合适的制造标准。
7.9 Serviceability limit state 正常使用极限状态
7.9.1 Load dependent stiffness reduction 依赖于载荷的刚度退化
For towers of reinforced and prestressed concrete, load dependent stiffness reduction due to cracking shall be taken into account for the calculation of the natural frequencies of the tower. For this calculation, stabilized cracking conditions shall be assumed for the complete tower. Moment curvature digrams shall be used where relevant.
对于钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土塔架，在计算塔架固有频率时，应考虑依赖于载荷的开裂导致的刚度折减。对于该计算，假设整个塔架满足稳定开裂条件。相关情况下，应使用弯矩-曲率图。
The load dependent stiffness reduction may be omitted for the calculation of the natural frequencies if decompression is verified for the load level S3 (see 5.4.3 definition of SLS load cases).
如果在荷载等级S3下进行了减压验证（见 5.4.3节 SLS 荷载工况的定义），那么可以在计算固有频率时不考虑依赖于荷载的刚度折减。
Nevertheless, load dependent stiffness reduction shall be considered in the ULS for the calculation of bending moments using second order theory ( P − Δ e f f e c t P-\Delta effect P−Δeffect), see 5.4.10.
尽管如此，在使用二阶理论（ P − Δ 效 应 P-\Delta 效应 P−Δ效应，见5.4.10节）在承载力极限状态下计算弯矩时尚应考虑依赖于荷载的刚度折减。
7.9.2 Stress limitation 应力限值
In towers and foundations of prestressed and reinforced concrete, the compressive stresses in concrete and the tensile stresses in the reinforcement (including prestressing steel) shall be limited in order to ensure the function and durability of the structure. The following limits should be applied.
在钢筋混凝土和预应力筋混凝土塔架和基础中，混凝土中的压应力和钢筋（包括预应力筋）的拉应力应该被限制以保证结构的功能和耐久性。以下限制应该适用。
The compressive stress in the concrete should be limited to 0 , 6 f c k 0,6f_{ck} 0,6fck for the characteristic combination of loads S1 (see 5.4.3.2). This is necessary in order to limit the formation of longitudinal cracks which may lead to a reduction of durability.
混凝土中的压应力在荷载S1的特征组合（见 5.4.3.2）下应限制在 0.6 f c k 0.6f_{ck} 0.6fck以内。这是限制可能导致耐久性降低的纵向裂纹形成的必要措施。
Creep shall be accounted for. If the compressive stress in the concrete is limited to 0 , 45 f c k 0,45f_{ck} 0,45fck for the permanent actions due to gravity load and prestress, linear creep may be assumed. Above this limit, non-linear creep shall be considered.
需要对蠕变进行考虑。如果对于重力荷载和预应力产生的永久作用，混凝土中的压应力限制在 0.45 f c k 0.45f_{ck} 0.45fck 以内，则可以假定为线性蠕变。否则，应考虑非线性蠕变。
Tensile stresses in the reinforcement (including prestressing steel) shall be limited in order to avoid inelastic strain, unacceptable cracking or deformation.
为了避免非弹性应变，不可接受的开裂或变形，钢筋（包括预应力筋）的拉应力应该受到限制。
Under the characteristic load combination S1 (see 5.4.3.2), the tensile stress in the reinforcement should not exceed 0 , 9 f y k 0,9f_{yk} 0,9fyk. Where the stress is caused by an imposed deformation (e.g restraint due to temperature), the limit may be extended to 1 , 0 f y k 1,0f_{yk} 1,0fyk. Under the characteristic load combination S1 (see 2), the mean stress (i.e. γ s u p = γ i n f = 1 , 0 \gamma_{sup}=\gamma_{inf}=1,0 γsup=γinf=1,0) in the prestressing tendons after immediate losses should not exceed 0 , 75 f y k 0,75f_{yk} 0,75fyk·
在特征荷载组合S1（见5.4.3.2），钢筋的拉应力不应超过 0.9 f y k 0.9f_{yk} 0.9fyk。如果应力是由施加的变形（例如，由于温度而产生的约束力）引起的，则极限可放宽至 1.0 f y k 1.0f_{yk} 1.0fyk 。在特征荷载组合 S1（见 2）下，预应力钢筋束在直接损失后的平均应力（即 γ s u p = γ i n f = 1.0 \gamma_{sup}=\gamma_{inf}=1.0 γsup=γinf=1.0）不应超过 0.75 f y k 0.75f_{yk} 0.75fyk 。
7.9.3 Crack control 裂缝控制
Cracking of concrete structures for wind turbines shall be limited to an extent that will not impair the proper functioning or durability of the structure or cause its appearance to be unacceptable.
风电机组混凝土结构的裂缝应限制在不会损害结构的正常功能或耐久性或导致其外观不合格的程度。
Adequate measures to limit crack widths shall be chosen in accordance with the reference standard. Concrete design standards generally do not specifically take into account the effect of highly dynamic loading, as prevalent in wind turbines, on the behaviour of cracks in concrete. Therefore, the methods proposed in the reference standard may need to be modified. Further guidance on crack control for certain countries and regions is given in Annex H. Unless a higher load level is defined in the reference standard(s) or in Annex H, the load level for crack control calculations shall be taken as the load level S3 defined in 5.4.3.4. In addition to loads resulting from wind turbine operation, the temperature actions defined in 7.2 .3.1 shall be considered for crack control, especially in parts of the structure where temperature may be a design driving action, for example for the horizontal reinforcement in towers.
应根据参考标准选择适当的措施限制裂缝宽度。混凝土设计标准通常没有特别考虑大量的动力荷载（风电机组中普遍存在）对混凝土裂缝行为的影响。因此，可能需要修改参考标准中提出的方法。附录H 给出了某些国家和地区裂缝控制的进一步指南。除非参考标准或附录 H 中规定了更高的荷载水平，否则裂缝控制计算的荷载等级应为 5.4.3.4 中规定的荷载等级 S3。除了机组运行产生的荷载外，应考虑 7.2.3.1 中规定的温度作用来控制裂缝，尤其是在温度可能起设计控制作用的结构部分，例如塔架中的水平钢筋。
In addition to limiting Crack widths, decompression (i.e. vertical tensile stresses in the concrete) shall be prevented entirely in the following cases:
a) in towers of prestressed concrete with bonded tendons for the load level S3 (see 5.4.3.4);
b) if the tower with bonded tendons is exposed to environmental conditions with corrosion induced by chlorides (e.g. saline air near to the coast), the verification shall be carried out far the load level S2 (see 5.4.3.3).
除限制裂缝宽度外，在以下情况下，应完全防止减压（即混凝土中的垂直拉应力）：
a) 在荷载等级 S3（见 5.4.3.4）的预应力混凝土塔中
b) 如果带粘结钢筋束的塔架暴露在氯化物（如靠近海岸的盐水空气）腐蚀的环境条件下，则应对荷载等级 S2 进行验证（见 5.4.3.3）。
The verification of decompression is recommended generally for all concrete tower types in order to avoid a reduced stiffness beyond the load level S3 (see 5.4.3.4). Otherwise, the impact on the tower natural frequency shall be considered (i.e. refer to 7.9.1).
通常建议对所有混凝土塔架类型进行减压验证，以避免刚度降低超过荷载等级 S3（见 5.4.3.4）。否则，应考虑对塔架固有频率的影响（即参考 7.9.1）。
7.9.4 Deformations 变形
Unless special requirements arise from the operation of the wind turbine, a limitation of deformations is not required.
除非风电机组的运行有特殊要求，否则不需要限制变形。
7.10 Execution 施工
7.10.1 General 概述
Subclause 7.10 provides requirements related to the execution (fabrication, construction, erection, etc.) of concrete structures used to support wind turbines and applies to reinforced concrete structures and foundations including cast-in-place or pre-fabricated schemes comprised of non-pre-stressed or pre-stressed concrete. This includes material testing, formwork, reinforcement, concrete production, concrete coating, pre-tensioning, posttensioning systems and repairs during construction of concrete structures.
第 7.10 节规定了与用于支持风电机组的混凝土结构的施工(预制，建筑、吊装等)有关的要求，适用于钢筋混凝土结构和基础，包括由非预应力或预应力混凝土组成的现浇或预制方案。这包括料测试、模板、钢筋、混凝土生产、混凝土涂层、预张拉、后张拉系统和混凝土结构施工期间的维修。
7.10.2 Requirements 要求
Unless other requirements prevail in the reference standard, the concrete structure shall be constructed in accordance with ISO 22966. However, it shall be ensured that the requirements in 7.10.3 to 7.10 .8 are met.
除非参考标准中有其他要求，否则混凝土结构应按照 ISO 22966 进行施工。但应确保满足 7.10.3 至7.10.8 的要求。
7.10.3 lnspection of materials and products 材料与产品的检查
Inspection of materials and products shall be carried out in accordance with execution class 2 in ISO 22966 or equivalent.
材料和产品的检验应按照 ISO 22966 或同等标准的 2 级执行。
7.10.4 Falsework and formwork 脚手架和模板
Falsework and formwork shall be carried out in accordance w ith ISO 22966.
脚手架和模板应按照 ISO 22966 进行。
7.10.5 Reinforcement and embedded steel 钢筋和预埋钢筋
Reinforcement and embedded steel shall be carried out in accordance with ISO 22966. No welding on reinforcement is allowed if this is not specifically considered in the design.
钢筋和预埋钢筋应按照 ISO 22966 进行。如果设计中未特别考虑，则不允许在钢筋上进行焊接。
7.10.6 Pre-stressing 预应力
Bonded pre-tensioned strands shall be clean of all coatings and lubricants and be properly secured during stressing to restrain movement in the concrete prior to curing. Stress limits defined in the applicable material standard (or type approval) for pretensioning steel may apply.
有粘结的预应力钢绞线不应有任何的涂层和润滑剂，并应在张拉期间适当固定，确保混凝土固结前其位移受到限制。预应力钢材的应力限值可采用适用材料标准（或型式认证）中的规定值。
Unbonded tendons placed inside the concrete section shall be adequately sealed prior to grouting of the tendon ducts and their anchorages. Unbonded tendons installed external to the concrete section shall be adequately sealed against the penetration of moisture along their lengths. Methods to achieve this corrosion protection shall be achieved through a protective coating of the strands. Alternative protection may be considered for evaluation using an internal environrnent that is dehumidified. All unbonded tendon anchorages shall be sealed and capped to seal the tendon against humidity and corrosive environment.
在对钢筋管道及其锚具进行灌浆之前，应充分密封混凝土截面内的无粘结钢筋束。体外无粘结钢筋束应充分密封以防止（空气中）水分沿长度方向渗透。应通过对钢绞线添加保护涂层实现这种防腐保护。可考虑使用除湿的内部环境进行评估。所有无粘结钢筋束锚固端应密封并加盖以密封钢筋束防止潮湿和腐蚀环境。
The prestressing instructions defined by the designer as well as any requirements stated in the standards or type approval for a specific prestressing system shall be followed.
The prestressing operations shall be documented in a protocol.
The corrosion protection substance chosen for the tendons shall be suitable for the vertical installation in wind turbines, i.e. they shall not begin to flow or drip due to the impact of gravity and temperature.
应遵守设计师规定的预应力说明以及标准或特定预应力系统型式认证中规定的任何要求。
预应力操作应记录在协议中。
预应力筋束的防腐材料应适用于风电机组垂直安装，例如它们不会因重力和温度的影响而流动或滴落。
7.10.7 Precast concrete elements 预制混凝土构件
Precast elements shall be cast using the appropriate level of vibration of the concrete during the casting operations to limit the possibility of honeycombing and achieve proper consolidation. Alternatively self-compacting concrete (SCC) may be used if appropriate measures are taken. Where joining of the precast elements exists through the use of a closure pour, the concrete strength and reinforcing in the closure shall be designed to carry the full strength of the precast cross section adjacent to the closure joint. Where a closure pour does not exist between precast elements, sufficient contact area between the joints shall be achieved to transfer all required axial, bending and shear stresses. The surface area shall not induce localized stress concentrations that exceed the permissible design concrete strength. Any requirements for the execution of joints defined by the designer shall be implemented.
在浇筑预制构件的过程中，应使混凝土有适当水平的振捣，以降低蜂窝出现的可能性并实现较好的固结。采取有效措施时可以考虑采用自密实混凝土。如果通过使用合拢浇筑连接预制构件，则接缝处的混凝土和钢筋强度应设计为承载接缝附近预制横截面的全截面强度。如果预制构件之间不采用闭合浇筑，则接缝之间应具有足够的接触面积，以传递所有要求的轴向、弯曲和剪切应力。表面区域导致的局部应力集中不得超过允许的混凝土设计强度。应该执行设计师关于节点施工的要求。
7.10.8 Geometrical tolerances 几何公差
Precast tolerances shall be in compliance with the reference standard and shall be considered in design. For precast elements, the tolerance values for joint surface levelness and allowable offset between joint surfaces shall be defined taking account of the reference standard.
预制公差应该与参考标准相一致并考虑设计要求。预制构件接缝表面水平度和接缝表面之间允许偏移的公差值应满足参考标准要求。
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