Transit oriented development among metro station areas in Shanghai, China

China: Variations, typology, optimization and implications for land use planning)

Transit oriented development among metro station areas in Shanghai, China: Variations, typology, optimization and implications for land use planning

keywords

TOD
Node-place model
Accessibility
Land use and transport integration
Land use planning

Abstract

• 研究背景
  Transit Oriented Development (TOD), the integration of transport system with land use, has gained considerate priorities in planning strategies towards urban sustainability.
• 研究目的
  To accrue a better overall leverage of the benefits arising from TOD practice, it is necessary to explore the variations and typology among TODs.
  -论文创新
  This paper extends the classic ‘node (transport) – place (land use)’ model by incorporating the oriented characteristics that represent the morphological and functional ties between transport and land use. （面向维度表征交通和土地利用之间的形态和功能联系）
• The model is applied to the case of Shanghai, China.
• 具体的研究方法
  Fuzzy AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) is used to construct the indicators system of each dimension (node, tie and place) in the model and typology among TODs is divided by SOM (self-organizing map).
• 研究发现

1. We find that the TOD index value declines from the urban center to the outskirts of the city obviously.
2. Four typologies are identified among TODs, including

• the Integrated (all high node, tie and place index value),
• the Functionally place-developed (low node index value and high tie and place index value),
• the Morphologically node-developed (high node index value and low tie and place index value)
• and the Dispersed (all low node, tie and place index value).

• 评估方法
  Based on the evaluation, we put forward an optimization plan for the areas with low TOD index values, which are consistent with the planned lines under construction. All the methods demonstrated in this study are easy to perform and can be widely applied to the assessment of TOD typologies worldwide.
• 研究意义
  This study produces some generalized knowledge that are useful for implementing TOD practice within land use planning.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

前人研究的不足：
1）没有对TOD分类后的结果进行进一步的分析和站点能力提升；
2）鲜有非西方国家的研究案例

1.2 Literature review

1.2.1 Conceptualizations 概念化

Even though scientific and political communities have no universally accepted TOD definition, the common goal of TOD remains to promote public transit through integrating land use with urban traffic, which is typically featured by moderate to high density developments around transit nodes with walkable and mixed use communities.
TOD is regarded as a means of formulating mass transit corridors for megaregion growth in Asia (Zhang, 2007; Yang and Lew, 2009), which is considered to be a strategy of re-connecting the existing dense urban developments around transit (Lindau et al., 2010).

1.2.2 Methodologies of TOD variations and typology

station (transport) and ‘place’ refers to the surrounding area
The basic idea is a feedback cycle between transport and
and use:

• (1) improving transport services and supply (the node value)
  will benefit the diversification and intensification of land use in the surrounding area;
• (2) diversifying and intensifying the land use (the place value) will benefit the infrastructure further development

Thus, TOD has a two-fold meaning:

• a transit station for people to catch the public transport services
• and a place for people to socialize, live, recreate, and shop (Bertolini, 1999).

It is argued that classification of TOD typologies can enable the performances evaluation and comparison across and within metro station areas and further enhance their design, planning, and operational activities. In particular, successful benchmarks can be identified for judging the TOD quality and further highlighting the priorities for further action.

The node-place model contributes to the understanding of the
transport and land use development of the metro station areas; however, it cannot reveal the morphological and functional interrelation between transport and land use.
这里指的是连接node和place的步行环境；

Prior studies have greatly advanced the knowledge about TOD, but three issues should be further deepened.

• First, functional attributes (e.g., transit service capacity) are not frequently considered for node measurement.
• Second, practical alternative tools should be developed to
  extend the node-place model and further describe TOD variations and typology.
• Last, there lacks of quantitative studies for the non-Western
  developing countries, since overwhelming majority of cases focused on the Western developed nations.

Focusing on the metro station areas in Shanghai, our specific objectives are to: (1) develop a practical tool by extending the node-place model to describe TOD variations; (2) demonstrate an alternative approach to TOD classifications and characterize the TOD typology; and (3) optimizethe metro system as solutions to TOD promotion and provide implications for land use planning.

1.3 The present study

2. Materials and method

2.1 Overall methodological framework

2.1.1 Extended ‘node-place’ model: ‘node-tie-place’ model

2.1.2 Main steps

To apply our node-tie-place model into the Case of Shanghai City, we:

• (1) geographically delineate TOD precincts for analysis;
• (2) establish the indicators for measuring ‘node (transit)’, ‘tie (oriented)’, and ‘place (development)’;
• (3) aggregate the indicators into integrated TOD index using Fuzzy AHP (analytic hierarchy process);
• (4) apply the selforganizing maps (SOM) to classify the TOD areas into different typologies;
• (4) employ a tabu-search algorithm to optimize the TOD networks;
• and (5) discuss some implications for urban planning.

The overall methodological framework is shown in Fig.4.

Fig. 4. Methodological framework

2.2 TOD sites delineation

15 min walking distance along the routes to define the TOD sites, and delineate the areas around the metro stations as TOD areas.
This specific threshold value is derived from the Master Plan of Shanghai, which attempts to establish a 15 min walkable neighborhood for residents. Within the 15 min walking distance
to community, residents can access to all the basic public services via walking.

2.3 TOD indicators and aggregation

收集了60个指标；利用Pearson相关系数降为了42个指标（>0.75）；
专家打分
In particular, expert judgment was guided by five criteria:

• measurability,
• discriminating ability,
• scientific validation,
• suitability
• scale appropriateness
  分为1-5分

Dimension	Component	Indicator	Explanation of indicators/Calculation method
Node	Metro station bearing capacity	Number of entrances and exits	Get the number of entrances and exits of various metro stations from Shanghai Metro official website
		Number of service orientations	Get the transfer status of each metro station from Shanghai Metro official website (twoway service on common lines, four-way service on two-way transfer stations, and so on)
		Average distance of station(meter)	The average distance from the current metro station to each service direction to the next station
		Maximum passenger flow (person)	The maximum passenger flow currently available at the metro station
		The number of compartments	Number of compartments passing through current metro station
	Metro station service capability	Starting interval (seconds)	The interval between departures within the metro station, if there are multiple lines, take the shortest interval between departures
		Operating time (minutes)	Daily operating hours of this station
	Metro station connectivity	Reachable station within 20 minutes	Use Baidu traffic big data to climb stations that can be reached by rail transit within 20 minutes and count their number
		Rail transit network integration	Calculate the degree of integration of road traffic network in Shanghai based on space syntax theory (The higher the level of integration, the greater the flow of people, the road is in a more convenient position in the entire road network). And the distance-weighted average of the integration indicators within 15 minutes’ walk of the Shanghai metro station is used to measure the traffic pressure around the metro station
Tie	Accessibility	Average distance to the workplace	Select the points of interest in the area within 15 minutes around the metro station, and calculate the average distance from the metro station to the points of interest in each workplace according to Shanghai road network.
		Average distance to medical facilities	Select the points of interest in the area within 15 minutes around the metro station, and calculate the average distance from the metro station to the points of interest in each medical facility according to Shanghai road network.
		Average distance to educational venues	Select the points of interest in the area within 15 minutes around the metro station, and calculate the average distance from the metro station to the points of interest in each educational venue according to Shanghai road network.
		Average distance to nursing homes	Select the points of interest in the area within 15 minutes around the metro station, and calculate the average distance from the metro station to the points of interest in each nursing home according to Shanghai road network.
		Average distance to recreation areas	Select the points of interest in the area within 15 minutes around the metro station, and calculate the average distance from the metro station to the points of interest in each recreation station according to Shanghai road network.
		Average distance to the residential quarters	Select the points of interest in the area within 15 minutes around the metro station, and calculate the average distance from the metro station to the points of interest in each residential quarter according to Shanghai Road Network.
		Average distance to bus stations	Select the bus stop within 15 minutes around the metro station, and calculate the average distance from the metro station to the bus stops according to Shanghai roadnetwork.
	Walkability	Proportion of walkable blocks within 15 minutes walking distance from the station	Calculate the proportion of 15-minute walkable blocks in the service area of metro stations.
		Average walkability of residential quarter	s Calculate the average walkability of residential quarters according to the revised Walk Score metric (Su et al., 2017)
		Road walkability	Ratio between pedestrian width and attached green spaces width
Place	Land use diversity	Residential area within 15 minutes’ walking distance from metro station	Taking area within 15 minutes’ walk as a threshold, count the area of residential land (Dr) with threshold range.
		Retail, hotel, restaurant within 15 minutes’ walking distance metro station	Taking area within 15 minutes’ walk as a threshold, count the area of commercial land (Dc) with threshold range.
		Educational, health, and cultural facilities within 15 minutes’ walking distance from metro station	Taking area within 15 minutes’ walk as a threshold, count the area of public management and public service land (Df) with threshold range.
		Public transport and service facilities within 15 minutes’ walking distance from the metro station	Taking area within 15 minutes’ walk as a threshold, count the area of municipal public facilities land (Da) with threshold range.
	Land use mixture	Land function mix	a=max(Dr,Dc,Df,Da) b=min(Dr,Dc,Df,Da) c=(Dr+Dc+Df+Da)/4 d=Dr+Dc+Df+Da F=1-((a-b)/d)-(a-c)/d))/2 The land function mix characterizes the degree of land use mixture in the areassurrounding the metro station

在计算之前，需要对指标进行标准化、正则化以及加权；

2.4 Classification of TOD typology

使用SOM进行分类，相比于分层聚类和k-means，其好处为：
1） 无需先验知识；
2） 可以处理非线性；
3） 适合于可视化

2.5 TOD optimization

对已有的较低的TOD指标值进行提升；
对没有地铁站的区域进行选址；
人类活动的密集化可以提升土地利用的多样性。
新的选址应该在人群密集的地方；
利用DBSCAN进行人群聚类；

3. Results

3.1 TOD variations

Fig. 5. Index variations among the metro stations within Shanghai.

• 高节点指标值位于地铁网络的核心；往外衰减
• 4号线的黄浦、静安和徐汇区域中等；
• tie 值高的地方在中心区域；
• 场所值高的分布城市中心的西北方；
• 然而，大部分的中央区域的核心车站（静安、黄浦、浦东新区）展现了较低的场所值；
• 
• Fig. 6. Index variations among the metro stations in the central area of Shanghai.
• 靠近中心城区的TOD值较高；换乘站的表现良好；整体呈现圈层结构；

3.2 TOD typology

换乘站都很高，交通和土地利用实现了协调发展；
功能性场所发展一般位于非换乘站，有中等的node值，高的tie和place. 这些站点的服务功能需要被提升；
形态节点发展的TOD落在中心区域的外围，中等的node、tie 以及place指标；
分散的TOD在地铁线路的末端。

3.3 TOD optimization

Fig. 8. The proposed new metro stations and lines.

4. Discussion and conclusions

4.1 TOD variations and typology

对于节点指标：高的值：靠近城市中心；
有大客流的站点有较高的节点值，因为这些站点有较好的capacity，服务能力以及联通性；
换乘站一般比普通站的节点值高，如人民广场和Yishan 路；
节点值逐渐从城市中心到边缘递减；
对于tie指标，同样分布于中心城区；丰富多样的商业设施对于减少居民的步行活动非常重要；大致上，城市中心和城区的tie值差不多；也就是到工作地的平均距离和到居住地的平均距离很相似；这样满足了人们的日常工作和生活需求；
place指标：高的值主要位于城市中心城区的西北地区；站点的土地利用多样；但是有一些城市核心区域的place值很低（Jing’an District, Huangpu District, and Pudong New Area near the
Huangpu River) is relatively low.因为以商业中心为主，居住比例很低；To some extent, it reflects the functional distribution in central area of Shanghai. In the core area of the metro network, the station mainly serves as a business center, and gradually transits to the peripheral circle to serve as residential area and then spreads to the surrounding districts.

4.2 Planning implications

4.3 Strengths, limits and prospects

• The proposed index system of the model can be further optimized and improved in the future dynamic monitoring, and can be updated in conjunction with the conditions of different regions, such as “station layer number”.
• However, it is worthwhile to mention that the established indicators system is not universal.
• Geo-big data such as cell phone signal and check-in data can be used as indicators for the tie dimension.
• Moreover, independent evaluation of the special TOD construction area can also be considered, and a comprehensive coverage and multi-scale comprehensive evaluation system can be constructed.
• Further consideration can also be made for the bus stations.
• In particular, how to design more robust models for optimizing the public transport system and land use should be given priorities in following studies.