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目录：

控制流和迭代

判断语句

Python当中的判断语句非常简单，并且Python不支持switch，所以即使是多个条件，我们也只能罗列if-else。

# Let's just make a variable
some_var = 5

# Here is an if statement. Indentation is significant in Python!
# Convention is to use four spaces, not tabs.
# This prints "some_var is smaller than 10"
if some_var > 10:
    print("some_var is totally bigger than 10.")
elif some_var < 10:    # This elif clause is optional.
    print("some_var is smaller than 10.")
else:                  # This is optional too.
    print("some_var is indeed 10.")
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循环

我们可以用in来循环迭代一个list当中的内容，这也是Python当中基本的循环方式。

"""
For loops iterate over lists
prints:
    dog is a mammal
    cat is a mammal
    mouse is a mammal
"""
for animal in ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]:
    # You can use format() to interpolate formatted strings
    print("{} is a mammal".format(animal))
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如果我们要循环一个范围，可以使用range。range加上一个参数表示从0开始的序列，比如range(10)，表示[0, 10)区间内的所有整数：

"""
"range(number)" returns an iterable of numbers
from zero to the given number
prints:
    0
    1
    2
    3
"""
for i in range(4):
    print(i)
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如果我们传入两个参数，则代表迭代区间的首尾。

"""
"range(lower, upper)" returns an iterable of numbers
from the lower number to the upper number
prints:
    4
    5
    6
    7
"""
for i in range(4, 8):
    print(i)
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如果我们传入第三个元素，表示每次循环变量自增的步长。

"""
"range(lower, upper, step)" returns an iterable of numbers
from the lower number to the upper number, while incrementing
by step. If step is not indicated, the default value is 1.
prints:
    4
    6
"""
for i in range(4, 8, 2):
    print(i)
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如果使用enumerate函数，可以同时迭代一个list的下标和元素：

"""
To loop over a list, and retrieve both the index and the value of each item in the list
prints:
    0 dog
    1 cat
    2 mouse
"""
animals = ["dog", "cat", "mouse"]
for i, value in enumerate(animals):
    print(i, value)
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while循环和C++类似，当条件为True时执行，为false时退出。并且判断条件不需要加上括号：

"""
While loops go until a condition is no longer met.
prints:
    0
    1
    2
    3
"""
x = 0
while x < 4:
    print(x)
    x += 1  # Shorthand for x = x + 1
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捕获异常

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Python当中使用try和except捕获异常，我们可以在except后面限制异常的类型。如果有多个类型可以写多个except，还可以使用else语句表示其他所有的类型。finally语句内的语法无论是否会触发异常都必定执行：

# Handle exceptions with a try/except block
try:
    # Use "raise" to raise an error
    raise IndexError("This is an index error")
except IndexError as e:
    pass                 # Pass is just a no-op. Usually you would do recovery here.
except (TypeError, NameError):
    pass                 # Multiple exceptions can be handled together, if required.
else:                    # Optional clause to the try/except block. Must follow all except blocks
    print("All good!")   # Runs only if the code in try raises no exceptions
finally:                 #  Execute under all circumstances
    print("We can clean up resources here")
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with操作

在Python当中我们经常会使用资源，最常见的就是open打开一个文件。我们打开了文件句柄就一定要关闭，但是如果我们手动来编码，经常会忘记执行close操作。并且如果文件异常，还会触发异常。这个时候我们可以使用with语句来代替这部分处理，使用with会自动在with块执行结束或者是触发异常时关闭打开的资源。

以下是with的几种用法和功能：

# Instead of try/finally to cleanup resources you can use a with statement
# 代替使用try/finally语句来关闭资源
with open("myfile.txt") as f:
    for line in f:
        print(line)

# Writing to a file
# 使用with写入文件
contents = {"aa": 12, "bb": 21}
with open("myfile1.txt", "w+") as file:
    file.write(str(contents))        # writes a string to a file

with open("myfile2.txt", "w+") as file:
    file.write(json.dumps(contents)) # writes an object to a file

# Reading from a file
# 使用with读取文件
with open('myfile1.txt', "r+") as file:
    contents = file.read()           # reads a string from a file
print(contents)
# print: {"aa": 12, "bb": 21}

with open('myfile2.txt', "r+") as file:
    contents = json.load(file)       # reads a json object from a file
print(contents)     
# print: {"aa": 12, "bb": 21}
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可迭代对象

凡是可以使用in语句来迭代的对象都叫做可迭代对象，它和迭代器不是一个含义。

当我们调用dict当中的keys方法的时候，返回的结果就是一个可迭代对象。

# Python offers a fundamental abstraction called the Iterable.
# An iterable is an object that can be treated as a sequence.
# The object returned by the range function, is an iterable.

filled_dict = {"one": 1, "two": 2, "three": 3}
our_iterable = filled_dict.keys()
print(our_iterable)  # => dict_keys(['one', 'two', 'three']). This is an object that implements our Iterable interface.

# We can loop over it.
for i in our_iterable:
    print(i)  # Prints one, two, three
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我们不能使用下标来访问可迭代对象，但我们可以用iter将它转化成迭代器，使用next关键字来获取下一个元素。也可以将它转化成list类型，变成一个list。

# However we cannot address elements by index.
our_iterable[1]  # Raises a TypeError

# An iterable is an object that knows how to create an iterator.
our_iterator = iter(our_iterable)

# Our iterator is an object that can remember the state as we traverse through it.
# We get the next object with "next()".
next(our_iterator)  # => "one"

# It maintains state as we iterate.
next(our_iterator)  # => "two"
next(our_iterator)  # => "three"

# After the iterator has returned all of its data, it raises a StopIteration exception
next(our_iterator)  # Raises StopIteration

# We can also loop over it, in fact, "for" does this implicitly!
our_iterator = iter(our_iterable)
for i in our_iterator:
    print(i)  # Prints one, two, three

# You can grab all the elements of an iterable or iterator by calling list() on it.
list(our_iterable)  # => Returns ["one", "two", "three"]
list(our_iterator)  # => Returns [] because state is saved
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函数

使用def关键字来定义函数，我们在传参的时候如果指定函数内的参数名，可以不按照函数定义的顺序传参：

# Use "def" to create new functions
def add(x, y):
    print("x is {} and y is {}".format(x, y))
    return x + y  # Return values with a return statement

# Calling functions with parameters
add(5, 6)  # => prints out "x is 5 and y is 6" and returns 11

# Another way to call functions is with keyword arguments
add(y=6, x=5)  # Keyword arguments can arrive in any order.
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可以在参数名之前加上*表示任意长度的参数，参数会被转化成list：

# You can define functions that take a variable number of
# positional arguments
def varargs(*args):
    return args

varargs(1, 2, 3)  # => (1, 2, 3)
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也可以指定任意长度的关键字参数，在参数前加上**表示接受一个dict：

# You can define functions that take a variable number of
# keyword arguments, as well
def keyword_args(**kwargs):
    return kwargs

# Let's call it to see what happens
keyword_args(big="foot", loch="ness")  # => {"big": "foot", "loch": "ness"}
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当然我们也可以两个都用上，这样可以接受任何参数：

# You can do both at once, if you like
def all_the_args(*args, **kwargs):
    print(args)
    print(kwargs)
"""
all_the_args(1, 2, a=3, b=4) prints:
    (1, 2)
    {"a": 3, "b": 4}
"""
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传入参数的时候我们也可以使用*和**来解压list或者是dict：

# When calling functions, you can do the opposite of args/kwargs!
# Use * to expand tuples and use ** to expand kwargs.
args = (1, 2, 3, 4)
kwargs = {"a": 3, "b": 4}
all_the_args(*args)            # equivalent to all_the_args(1, 2, 3, 4)
all_the_args(**kwargs)         # equivalent to all_the_args(a=3, b=4)
all_the_args(*args, **kwargs)  # equivalent to all_the_args(1, 2, 3, 4, a=3, b=4)
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Python中的参数可以返回多个值：

# Returning multiple values (with tuple assignments)
def swap(x, y):
    return y, x  # Return multiple values as a tuple without the parenthesis.
                 # (Note: parenthesis have been excluded but can be included)

x = 1
y = 2
x, y = swap(x, y)     # => x = 2, y = 1
# (x, y) = swap(x,y)  # Again parenthesis have been excluded but can be included.
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函数内部定义的变量即使和全局变量重名，也不会覆盖全局变量的值。想要在函数内部使用全局变量，需要加上global关键字，表示这是一个全局变量：

# Function Scope
x = 5

def set_x(num):
    # Local var x not the same as global variable x
    x = num    # => 43
    print(x)   # => 43

def set_global_x(num):
    global x
    print(x)   # => 5
    x = num    # global var x is now set to 6
    print(x)   # => 6

set_x(43)
set_global_x(6)
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Python支持函数式编程，我们可以在一个函数内部返回一个函数：

# Python has first class functions
def create_adder(x):
    def adder(y):
        return x + y
    return adder

add_10 = create_adder(10)
add_10(3)   # => 13
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Python中可以使用lambda表示匿名函数，使用:作为分隔，:前面表示匿名函数的参数，:后面的是函数的返回值：

# There are also anonymous functions
(lambda x: x > 2)(3)                  # => True
(lambda x, y: x ** 2 + y ** 2)(2, 1)  # => 5
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我们还可以将函数作为参数使用map和filter，实现元素的批量处理和过滤。

# There are built-in higher order functions
list(map(add_10, [1, 2, 3]))          # => [11, 12, 13]
list(map(max, [1, 2, 3], [4, 2, 1]))  # => [4, 2, 3]

list(filter(lambda x: x > 5, [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]))  # => [6, 7]
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我们还可以结合循环和判断语来给list或者是dict进行初始化：

# We can use list comprehensions for nice maps and filters
# List comprehension stores the output as a list which can itself be a nested list
[add_10(i) for i in [1, 2, 3]]         # => [11, 12, 13]
[x for x in [3, 4, 5, 6, 7] if x > 5]  # => [6, 7]

# You can construct set and dict comprehensions as well.
{x for x in 'abcddeef' if x not in 'abc'}  # => {'d', 'e', 'f'}
{x: x**2 for x in range(5)}  # => {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}
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模块

使用import语句引入一个Python模块，我们可以用.来访问模块中的函数或者是类。

# You can import modules
import math
print(math.sqrt(16))  # => 4.0
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我们也可以使用from import的语句，单独引入模块内的函数或者是类，而不再需要写出完整路径。使用from import *可以引入模块内所有内容（不推荐这么干）

# You can get specific functions from a module
from math import ceil, floor
print(ceil(3.7))   # => 4.0
print(floor(3.7))  # => 3.0

# You can import all functions from a module.
# Warning: this is not recommended
from math import *
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可以使用as给模块内的方法或者类起别名：

# You can shorten module names
import math as m
math.sqrt(16) == m.sqrt(16)  # => True
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我们可以使用dir查看我们用的模块的路径：

# You can find out which functions and attributes
# are defined in a module.
import math
dir(math)
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这么做的原因是如果我们当前的路径下也有一个叫做math的Python文件，那么会覆盖系统自带的math的模块。这是尤其需要注意的，不小心会导致很多奇怪的bug。

类

我们来看一个完整的类，相关的介绍都在注释当中（免费领取Python自动化学习资料  工具，面试宝典面试技巧，加QQ群，785128166，群内还会大佬技术交流）​​​​​​​

# We use the "class" statement to create a class
class Human:

    # A class attribute. It is shared by all instances of this class
    # 类属性，可以直接通过Human.species调用，而不需要通过实例
    species = "H. sapiens"

    # Basic initializer, this is called when this class is instantiated.
    # Note that the double leading and trailing underscores denote objects
    # or attributes that are used by Python but that live in user-controlled
    # namespaces. Methods(or objects or attributes) like: __init__, __str__,
    # __repr__ etc. are called special methods (or sometimes called dunder methods)
    # You should not invent such names on your own.
    # 最基础的构造函数
    # 加了下划线的函数和变量表示不应该被用户使用，其中双下划线的函数或者是变量将不会被子类覆盖
    # 前后都有双下划线的函数和属性是类当中的特殊属性
    def __init__(self, name):
        # Assign the argument to the instance's name attribute
        self.name = name

        # Initialize property
        self._age = 0

    # An instance method. All methods take "self" as the first argument
    # 类中的函数，所有实例可以调用，第一个参数必须是self
    # self表示实例的引用
    def say(self, msg):
        print("{name}: {message}".format(name=self.name, message=msg))

    # Another instance method
    def sing(self):
        return 'yo... yo... microphone check... one two... one two...'

    # A class method is shared among all instances
    # They are called with the calling class as the first argument
    @classmethod
    # 加上了注解，表示是类函数
    # 通过Human.get_species来调用，所有实例共享
    def get_species(cls):
        return cls.species

    # A static method is called without a class or instance reference
    @staticmethod
    # 静态函数，通过类名或者是实例都可以调用
    def grunt():
        return "*grunt*"

    # A property is just like a getter.
    # It turns the method age() into an read-only attribute of the same name.
    # There's no need to write trivial getters and setters in Python, though.
    @property
    # property注解，类似于get，set方法
    # 效率很低，除非必要，不要使用
    def age(self):
        return self._age

    # This allows the property to be set
    @age.setter
    def age(self, age):
        self._age = age

    # This allows the property to be deleted
    @age.deleter
    def age(self):
        del self._age
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下面我们来看看Python当中类的使用：

# When a Python interpreter reads a source file it executes all its code.
# This __name__ check makes sure this code block is only executed when this
# module is the main program.
# 这个是main函数也是整个程序入口的惯用写法
if __name__ == '__main__':
    # Instantiate a class
    # 实例化一个类，获取类的对象
    i = Human(name="Ian")
    # 执行say方法
    i.say("hi")                     # "Ian: hi"
    j = Human("Joel")
    j.say("hello")                  # "Joel: hello"
    # i和j都是Human的实例，都称作是Human类的对象
    # i and j are instances of type Human, or in other words: they are Human objects

    # Call our class method
    # 类属性被所有实例共享，一旦修改全部生效
    i.say(i.get_species())          # "Ian: H. sapiens"
    # Change the shared attribute
    Human.species = "H. neanderthalensis"
    i.say(i.get_species())          # => "Ian: H. neanderthalensis"
    j.say(j.get_species())          # => "Joel: H. neanderthalensis"

    # 通过类名调用静态方法
    # Call the static method
    print(Human.grunt())            # => "*grunt*"

    # Cannot call static method with instance of object 
    # because i.grunt() will automatically put "self" (the object i) as an argument
    # 不能通过对象调用静态方法，因为对象会传入self实例，会导致不匹配
    print(i.grunt())                # => TypeError: grunt() takes 0 positional arguments but 1 was given

    # Update the property for this instance
    # 实例级别的属性是独立的，各个对象各自拥有，修改不会影响其他对象内的值
    i.age = 42
    # Get the property
    i.say(i.age)                    # => "Ian: 42"
    j.say(j.age)                    # => "Joel: 0"
    # Delete the property
    del i.age
    # i.age                         # => this would raise an AttributeError
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这里解释一下，实例和对象可以理解成一个概念，实例的英文是instance，对象的英文是object。都是指类经过实例化之后得到的对象。

继承

继承可以让子类继承父类的变量以及方法，并且我们还可以在子类当中指定一些属于自己的特性，并且还可以重写父类的一些方法。一般我们会将不同的类放在不同的文件当中，使用import引入，一样可以实现继承。

from human import Human

# Specify the parent class(es) as parameters to the class definition
class Superhero(Human):

    # If the child class should inherit all of the parent's definitions without
    # any modifications, you can just use the "pass" keyword (and nothing else)
    # but in this case it is commented out to allow for a unique child class:
    # pass
    # 如果要完全继承父类的所有的实现，我们可以使用关键字pass，表示跳过。这样不会修改父类当中的实现

    # Child classes can override their parents' attributes
    species = 'Superhuman'

    # Children automatically inherit their parent class's constructor including
    # its arguments, but can also define additional arguments or definitions
    # and override its methods such as the class constructor.
    # This constructor inherits the "name" argument from the "Human" class and
    # adds the "superpower" and "movie" arguments:
    # 子类会完全继承父类的构造方法，我们也可以进行改造，比如额外增加一些参数
    def __init__(self, name, movie=False,
                 superpowers=["super strength", "bulletproofing"]):

        # add additional class attributes:
        # 额外新增的参数
        self.fictional = True
        self.movie = movie
        # be aware of mutable default values, since defaults are shared
        self.superpowers = superpowers

        # The "super" function lets you access the parent class's methods
        # that are overridden by the child, in this case, the __init__ method.
        # This calls the parent class constructor:
        # 子类可以通过super关键字调用父类的方法
        super().__init__(name)

    # override the sing method
    # 重写父类的sing方法
    def sing(self):
        return 'Dun, dun, DUN!'

    # add an additional instance method
    # 新增方法，只属于子类
    def boast(self):
        for power in self.superpowers:
            print("I wield the power of {pow}!".format(pow=power))
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if __name__ == '__main__':
    sup = Superhero(name="Tick")

    # Instance type checks
    # 检查继承关系
    if isinstance(sup, Human):
        print('I am human')
    # 检查类型
    if type(sup) is Superhero:
        print('I am a superhero')

    # Get the Method Resolution search Order used by both getattr() and super()
    # This attribute is dynamic and can be updated
    # 查看方法查询的顺序
    # 先是自身，然后沿着继承顺序往上，最后到object
    print(Superhero.__mro__)    # => (<class '__main__.Superhero'>,
                                # => <class 'human.Human'>, <class 'object'>)

    # 相同的属性子类覆盖了父类
    # Calls parent method but uses its own class attribute
    print(sup.get_species())    # => Superhuman

    # Calls overridden method
    # 相同的方法也覆盖了父类
    print(sup.sing())           # => Dun, dun, DUN!

    # Calls method from Human
    # 继承了父类的方法
    sup.say('Spoon')            # => Tick: Spoon

    # Call method that exists only in Superhero
    # 子类特有的方法
    sup.boast()                 # => I wield the power of super strength!
                                # => I wield the power of bulletproofing!

    # Inherited class attribute
    sup.age = 31
    print(sup.age)              # => 31

    # Attribute that only exists within Superhero
    print('Am I Oscar eligible? ' + str(sup.movie))
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多继承

我们创建一个蝙蝠类：

# Another class definition
# bat.py
class Bat:

    species = 'Baty'

    def __init__(self, can_fly=True):
        self.fly = can_fly

    # This class also has a say method
    def say(self, msg):
        msg = '... ... ...'
        return msg

    # And its own method as well
    # 蝙蝠独有的声呐方法
    def sonar(self):
        return '))) ... ((('

if __name__ == '__main__':
    b = Bat()
    print(b.say('hello'))
    print(b.fly)
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我们再创建一个蝙蝠侠的类，同时继承Superhero和Bat：

# And yet another class definition that inherits from Superhero and Bat
# superhero.py
from superhero import Superhero
from bat import Bat

# Define Batman as a child that inherits from both Superhero and Bat
class Batman(Superhero, Bat):

    def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        # Typically to inherit attributes you have to call super:
        # super(Batman, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)      
        # However we are dealing with multiple inheritance here, and super()
        # only works with the next base class in the MRO list.
        # So instead we explicitly call __init__ for all ancestors.
        # The use of *args and **kwargs allows for a clean way to pass arguments,
        # with each parent "peeling a layer of the onion".
        # 通过类名调用两个父类各自的构造方法
        Superhero.__init__(self, 'anonymous', movie=True, 
                           superpowers=['Wealthy'], *args, **kwargs)
        Bat.__init__(self, *args, can_fly=False, **kwargs)
        # override the value for the name attribute
        self.name = 'Sad Affleck'

    # 重写父类的sing方法
    def sing(self):
        return 'nan nan nan nan nan batman!'
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执行这个类：

if __name__ == '__main__':
    sup = Batman()

    # Get the Method Resolution search Order used by both getattr() and super().
    # This attribute is dynamic and can be updated
    # 可以看到方法查询的顺序是先沿着superhero这条线到human，然后才是bat
    print(Batman.__mro__)       # => (<class '__main__.Batman'>, 
                                # => <class 'superhero.Superhero'>, 
                                # => <class 'human.Human'>, 
                                # => <class 'bat.Bat'>, <class 'object'>)

    # Calls parent method but uses its own class attribute
    # 只有superhero有get_species方法
    print(sup.get_species())    # => Superhuman

    # Calls overridden method
    print(sup.sing())           # => nan nan nan nan nan batman!

    # Calls method from Human, because inheritance order matters
    sup.say('I agree')          # => Sad Affleck: I agree

    # Call method that exists only in 2nd ancestor
    # 调用蝙蝠类的声呐方法
    print(sup.sonar())          # => ))) ... (((

    # Inherited class attribute
    sup.age = 100
    print(sup.age)              # => 100

    # Inherited attribute from 2nd ancestor whose default value was overridden.
    print('Can I fly? ' + str(sup.fly)) # => Can I fly? False
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进阶

生成器

我们可以通过yield关键字创建一个生成器，每次我们调用的时候执行到yield关键字处则停止。下次再次调用则还是从yield处开始往下执行：

# Generators help you make lazy code.
def double_numbers(iterable):
    for i in iterable:
        yield i + i

# Generators are memory-efficient because they only load the data needed to
# process the next value in the iterable. This allows them to perform
# operations on otherwise prohibitively large value ranges.
# NOTE: `range` replaces `xrange` in Python 3.
for i in double_numbers(range(1, 900000000)):  # `range` is a generator.
    print(i)
    if i >= 30:
        break
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除了yield之外，我们还可以使用()小括号来生成一个生成器：

# Just as you can create a list comprehension, you can create generator
# comprehensions as well.
values = (-x for x in [1,2,3,4,5])
for x in values:
    print(x)  # prints -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 to console/terminal

# You can also cast a generator comprehension directly to a list.
values = (-x for x in [1,2,3,4,5])
gen_to_list = list(values)
print(gen_to_list)  # => [-1, -2, -3, -4, -5]
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装饰器

我们引入functools当中的wraps之后，可以创建一个装饰器。装饰器可以在不修改函数内部代码的前提下，在外面包装一层其他的逻辑:

# Decorators
# In this example `beg` wraps `say`. If say_please is True then it
# will change the returned message.
from functools import wraps

def beg(target_function):
    @wraps(target_function)
    # 如果please为True，额外输出一句Please! I am poor :(
    def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
        msg, say_please = target_function(*args, **kwargs)
        if say_please:
            return "{} {}".format(msg, "Please! I am poor :(")
        return msg

    return wrapper

@beg
def say(say_please=False):
    msg = "Can you buy me a beer?"
    return msg, say_please

print(say())                 # Can you buy me a beer?
print(say(say_please=True))  # Can you buy me a beer? Please! I am poor :(
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结尾

不知道有多少小伙伴可以看到结束，如果都能读懂并且理解的话，那么Python这门语言就算是入门了。

如果你之前就有其他语言的语言基础，我想本文读完应该不用30分钟。当然在30分钟内学会一门语言是不可能的，也不是我所提倡的。但至少通过本文我们可以做到熟悉Python的语法，知道大概有哪些操作，剩下的就要我们亲自去写代码的时候去体会和运用了。

根据我的经验，在学习一门新语言的前期，不停地查阅资料是免不了的。希望本文可以作为你在使用Python时候的查阅文档。

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