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these goals can be inclusive and exploratory or narrow,sensitive to the audi-
ence or chained to the topic,based on rhetorical savvy or focused on produc-
ing correct prose.All those forces which might"guide"composing,such as
the rhetorical situation,one's knowledge,the genre,etc.,are mediated
through the goals,plans,and criteria for evaluation of discourse actually set
up by the writer.
This does not mean that a writer's goals are necessarily elaborate,logical,
or conscious.For example,a simple-minded goal such as"Write down what I
can remember"may be perfectly adequate for writing a list.And experienced
writers,such as journalists,can often draw on elaborate networks of goals
which are so well learned as to be automatic.Or the rules of a genre,such as
those of the limerick,may be so specific as to leave little room or necessity
for elaborate rhetorical planning.Nevertheless,whether one's goals are
abstract or detailed,simple or sophisticated,they provide the"logic"that
moves the composing process forward.
3.Finally,writers not only create a hierarchical network of guiding goals,
but,as they compose,they continually return or"pop"back up to their
higher-level goals.And these higher-level goals give direction and coherence
to their next move.Our understanding of this network and how writers use it
is still quite limited,but we can make a prediction about an important dif-
ference one might find between good and poor writers.Poor writers will
frequently depend on very abstract,undeveloped top-level goals,such as
"appeal to a broad range of intellect,"even though such goals are much
harder to work with than a more operational goal such as"give a brief history
of my job."Sondra Perl has seen this phenomenon in the basic writers who
kept returning to reread the assignment,searching,it would seem,for
ready-made goals,instead of forming their own.Alternatively,poor writers
will depend on only very low-level goals,such as finishing a sentence or
correctly spelling a word.They will be,as Nancy Sommers student revisers
were,locked in by the myopia in their own goals and criteria.
Therefore,one might predict that an important difference between good
and poor writers will be in both the quantity and quality of the middle range
of goals they create.These middle-range goals,which lie between intention
and actual prose(cf.,"give a brief history"in Figure 3),give substance and
direction to more abstract goals(such as"appealing to the audience")and
they give breadth and coherence to local decisions about what to say next.
A CognitiveProcesTsheory 379CollegeCompositionand Communication
Goals,Topic,and Text
We have been suggesting that the logic which moves composing forward
grows out of the goals which writers create as they compose.However,
common sense and the folklore of writing offer an alternative explanation
which we should consider,namely,that one's own knowledge of the topic
(memories,associations,etc.)or the text itself can take control of this process
as frequently as one's goals do.One could easily imagine these three forces
constituting a sort of eternal triangle in which the writer's goals,knowledge,
and current text struggle for influence.For example,the writer's initial plan-
ning for a given paragraphmight have set up a goal or abstract representation
of a paragraphthat would discuss three equally important,parallel points on
the topic of climate.However,in trying to write,the writer finds that some
of his knowledge about climate is really organized around a strong cause-
and-effect relationship between points 1 and 2,while he has almost nothing
to say about point 3.Or perhaps the text itself attempts to take control,e.g.,
for the sake of a dramatic opening,the writer's first sentence sets up a vivid
example of an effect produced by climate.The syntactic and semantic struc-
ture of that sentence now demand that a cause be stated in the next,although
this would violate the writer's initial(and still appropriate)plan for a three-
point paragraph.
Viewed this way,the writer's abstract plan(representation)of his goals,his
knowledge of the topic,and his current text are all actively competing for the
writer's attention.Each wants to govern the choices and decisions made next.
This competitive model certainly captures that experience of seeing the text
run away with you,or the feeling of being led by the nose by an idea.How
then do these experiences occur within a"goal-driven process"?First,as our
model of the writing process describes,the processes of generate and
evaluate appear to have the power to interrupt the writer's process at any
point-and they frequently do.This means that new knowledge and/or some
feature of the current text can interrupt the process at any time through the
processes of generate and evaluate.This allows a flexible collaboration
among goals,knowledge,and text.Yet this collaboration often culminates in
a revision of previous goals.The persistence and functional importance of
initally established goals is reflected by a number of signs:the frequency with
which writers refer back to their goals;the fact that writers behave consis-
tently with goals they have arreadystated;and the fact that they evaluate text
in response to the criteria specified in their goals.
Second,some kinds of goals steer the writing process in yet another basic
way.In the writers we have studied,the overall composing process is clearly
under the direction of global and local processgoals.Behind the most free-
wheeling act of"discovery"is a writer who has recognized the heuristic value
of free exploration or"just writing it out"and has chosen to do so.Process
goals such as these,or"I'll edit it later,"are the earmarks of sophisticated
writers with a repertory of flexible process goals which let them use writing
380A CognitiveProcessTheory
for discovery.But what about poorer writers who seem simply to free as-
sociate on paper or to be obsessed with perfecting the current text?We
would argue that often they too are working under a set of implicit process
goals which say"write it as it comes,"or"make everything perfect and cor-
rect as you go."The problem then is not that knowledge or the text have
taken over,so much as that the writer's own goals and/or images of the com-
posing process put these strategies in control.23
To sum up,the third point of our theory-focused on the role of the
writer's own goals-helps us account for purposefulness in writing.But can
we account for the dynamics of discovery?Richard Young,Janet Emig,and
others argue that writing is uniquely adapted to the task of fostering insight
and developing new knowledge.24 But how does this happen in a goal-
directed process?
We think that the remarkable combination of purposefulness and openness
which writing offers is based in part on a beautifully simple,but extremely
powerful principle,which is this:In the act of writing,peopleregenerateor re-
createtheir own goals in the light of what they learn.This principle then creates
the fourth point of our cognitive process theory.
4.Writers create their own goals in two key ways:by generating goals
and supporting sub-goals which embody a purpose;and,at times,by
changing or regenerating their own top-level goals in light of what
they have learned by writing.
We are used,of course,to thinking of writing as a process in which our
knowledgedevelops as we write.The structure of knowledge for some topic
becomes more conscious and assertive as we keep tapping memory for re-
lated ideas.That structure,or"schema,"may even grow and change as a
result of library research or the addition of our own fresh inferences.How-
ever,writers must also generate(i.e.,create or retrieve)the unique goals
which guide their process.
In this paper we focus on the goals writers create for a particularpaper,but
we should not forget that many writing goals are well-learned,standard ones
stored in memory.For example,we would expect many writers to draw au-
tomatically on those goals associated with writing in general,such as,"inter-
est the reader,"or"startwith an introduction,"or on goals associated with a
given genre,such as making a jingle rhyme.These goals will often be so basic
that they won't even be consciously considered or expressed.And the more
experienced the writer the greater this repertory of semi-automatic plans and
goals will be.
Writers also develop an elaborate network of working"sub-goals"as they
compose.As we have seen,these sub-goals give concrete meaning and direc-
tion to their more abstract top-level goals,such as"interest the reader,"or
"describe my job."And then on occasion writers show a remarkable ability to
381CollegeCompositionand Communication
regenerate or change the very goals which had been directing their writing
and planning:that is,they replace or revise major goals in light of what they
learned through writing.It is these two creative processes we wish to con-
sider now.
We can see these two basic processes-creating sub-goals and regenerating
goals-at work in the following protocol,which has been broken down into
episodes.As you will see,writers organize these two basic processes in dif-
ferent ways.We will look here at three typical patterns of goals which we
have labeled"Explore and Consolidate,""State and Develop,""Write and
Regenerate."
Exploreand Consolidate
This pattern often occurs at the beginning of a composing session,but it
could appear anywhere.The writers frequently appear to be working under a
high-level goal or plan to explore:that is,to think the topic over,to jot ideas
down,or just start writing to see what they have to say.At other times the
plan to explore is subordinate to a very specific goal,such as to find out
"what on earth can I say that would make a 15-year-old girl interested in my
job?"Under such a plan,the writer might explore her own knowledge,fol-
lowing out associations or using more structured discovery procedures such
as tagmemics or the classical topics.But however the writer chooses to
explore,the next step is the critical one.The writer pops back up to her
top-level goal and from that vantage point reviews the information she has
generated.She then consolidates it,producing a more complex idea than she
began with by drawing inferences and creating new concepts.
Even the poor writers we have studied often seem adept at the exploration
part of this process,even to the point of generating long narrative trains of
association-sometimes on paper as a final draft.The distinctive thing about
good writers is their tendency to return to that higher-level goal and to re-
view and consolidate what has just been learned through exploring.In the act
of consolidating,the writer sets up a new goal which replaces the goal of
explore and directs the subsequent episode in composing.If the writer's
topic is unfamiliar or the task demands creative thinking,the writer's ability
to explore,to consolidate the results,and to regenerate his or her goals will
be a critical skill.
The following protocol excerpt,which is divided into episodes and sub-
episodes,illustrates this pattern of explore and consolidate.
Episode 1 a,b
In the first episode,the writer merely reviews the assignment and plays
with some associations as he attempts to define his rhetorical situation.It
ends with a simple process goal-"On to the task at hand"-and a reiteration
of the assignment.
382(la)Okay-Um...Open the envelope-just like a quiz show on TV-
My job for a young thirteen to fourteen teenage female audience-
Magazine-Seventeen.My job for a young teenage female audience-
Magazine-Seventeen.I never have read Seventeen,but I've referred to it in
classandotherstudentshave.(lb)This is like beingthrownthe topicin a
situation-you know-in anexpositorywritingclassandaskedto writeon
it on the boardand I've done thatandhada lot of fun with it-so on to
the taskat hand.My job for a youngteenagefemaleaudience-Magazine
-Seventeen.
Episode 2 a,b,c,d
The writer starts with a plan to explore his own"job,"which he initially
defines as being a teacher and not a professor.In the process of exploring he
develops a variety of sub-goals which include plans to:make new meaning by
exploring a contrast;present himself or his persona as a teacher;and affect
his audience by making them reconsider one of their previous notions.The
extended audience analysis of teen-age girls(sub-episode 2c)is in response to
his goal of affecting them.
At the end of episode 2c,the writer reaches tentative closure with the
statement,"By God,I can change that notion for them."There are signifi-
cantly long pauses on both sides of this statement,which appears to consoli-
date much of the writer's previous exploration.In doing this,he dramatically
extends his earlier,rather vague plan to merely"compare teachers and
professors"-he has regenerated and elaborated his top-level goals.'This con-
solidation leaves the writer with a new,relatively complex,rhetorically
sophisticated working goal,one which encompasses plans for a topic,a per-
sona,and the audience.In essence the writer is learning through planning
and his goals are the creative bridge between his exploration and the prose
he will write.
Perhaps the writer thought his early closure at this point was too good to
be true,so he returns at 2d to his initial top-level or most inclusive goal
(write about my job)and explores alternative definitions of his job.The
episode ends with the reaffirmation of his topic,his persona,and,by implica-
tion,the consolidated goal established in Episode 2c.
(2a)Okay lets see-lets doodle a little bit-Job-English teacher rather
thanprofessor-I'mdoodlingthis on a scratchsheet as I say it.-ah-(2b)
In factthatmightbe a usefulthingto focus on-how a professordiffers
from-howa teacherdiffersfroma professorandI see myselfasa teacher
-thatmighthelp them-my audienceto reconsidertheir notion of what
anEnglishteacherdoes.(2c)-ah-Englishteacher-youngteen-agefemale
audience-they will all have had English-audience-they're in school-
they'retakingEnglish-for manyof them Englishmaybe a favoritesub-
ject-doodling still-under audience,but for the wrong reasons-some of
themwill havewrongreasonsin thatEnglishis good becauseits tidy-can
be a neattidylittlegirl-othersturnedoff of it becauseit seemstoo prim.
By God I can change that notion for them.(2d)My job for a young
teenage female audience-Magazine-Seventeen.-ah-Job-English teacher
A CognitiveProcesTsheory 383CollegeCompositionand Communication
-guess that's what I'll have to go-yeah-hell-go with that-that's a
challenge-rather than-riding a bicycle across England that's too easy and
not on the topic-right,or would work in a garden or something like that
-none of those are really my jobs-as a profession-My job for a young
teenage female audience-Magazine-Seventeen.All right-I'm an English
teacher.
State and Develop
This second pattern accounts for much of the straightforward work of
composing,and is well illustrated in our protocol.In it the writer begins with
a relatively general high-level goal which he then proceeds to develop or
flesh out with sub-goals.As his goals become more fully specified,they form
a bridge from his inital rather fuzzy intentions to actual text.Figure 4 is a
schematic representation of the goals and sub-goals which the writer eventu-
ally creates.
384
The episode starts with a sub-goal directly subordinate to the goal estab-
lished in Episode 2(change their notion of English teachers).It takes theA CognitiveProcessTheory
pattern of a search in which the writer tries to find ways to carry out his
current goal of"get[the audience?]at the beginning."In the process he
generates yet another level of sub-goals(i.e.,open with a question and draw
them into a familiar situation).(A note on our terminology:in order to focus
on the overall structure of goals and sub-goals in a writer's thinking,we have
treated the writer's plans and strategies all as sub-goals or operational defini-
tions of the larger goal.)
Notice how the content or ideas of the essay are still relatively unspecified.
The relationship between creating goals and finding ideas is clearly recip-
rocal:it was an initial exploration of the writer's ideas which produced these
goals.But the writing process was then moved forward by his attempt to
flesh out a network of goals and sub-goals,not just by a mere"pre-writing"
survey of what he knew about the topic.Episode 3c ends in an effort to test
one of his new goals against his own experience with students.
(3a)All right-I'm an Englishteacher.I wantto get at the beginning-I
know that they'renot going to be disposed-to hearwhat I'm saying-
partlyfor that reason and partlyto put them in the right,the kind of
frameof mind I want-I want to open with an implied question or a
directone and put them in the middle of some situation-then expand
from there to talk about my job more generally...and try to tie it in
with theirinterest.(3b)So one questionis whereto begin-whatkindof
situationto startin the middle of-probablythe first day of class....
They'dbe interested-they'dprobablyclue into thateasilybecausethey
would identify with first days of school and my first days are raucous
affairs-it would immediatelyshake-emup and get them to thinkinga
differentcontext.(3c)Okay-so-Firstdayof class-lets see.-Maybethe
first 101 classwith that crazyskit I put on-that'sprobablybetter than
305 because 101 is freshmenand that'snearertheir level and that skit
reallywas crazyandit workedbeautifully.
Write and Regenerate
This pattern is clearly analogous to the explore and consolidate pattern,
except that instead of planning,the writer is producing prose.A miniature
example of it can be seen in Figure 2,in which the writer,whose planning we
have just seen,attempts to compose the first sentence of his article for Sev-
enteen.Although he had done a good deal of explicit planning before this
point,the prose itself worked as another,more detailed representation of
what he wanted to say.In writing the sentence,he not only saw that it was
inadequate,but that his goals themselves could be expanded.The reciprocity
between writing and planning enabled him to learn even from a failure and to
produce a new goal,"play up sex."Yet it is instructive to note that once this
new plan was represented in language-subjected to the acid test of prose-it
too failed to pass,because it violated some of his tacit goals or criteria for an
acceptable prose style.
The examples we cite here are,for the purposes of illustration,small and
385CollegeCompositionand Communication
rather local ones.Yet this process of setting and developing sub-goals,
and-at times-regenerating those goals is a powerful creative process.Writ-
ers and teachers of writing have long argued that one learns through the act
of writing itself,but it has been difficult to support the claim in other ways.
However,if one studies the process by which a writer uses a goal to generate
ideas,then consolidates those ideas and uses them to revise or regenerate
new,more complex goals,one can see this learning process in action.Fur-
thermore,one sees why the process of revising and clarifying goals has such a
broad effect,since it is through setting these new goals that the fruits of
discovery come back to inform the continuing process of writing.In this
instance,some of our most complex and imaginative acts can depend on the
elegant simplicity of a few powerful thinking processes.We feel that a cogni-
tive process explanation of discovery,toward which this theory is only a start,
will have another special strength.By placing emphasis on the inventive
power of the writer,who is able to explore ideas,to develop,act on,test,and
regenerate his or her own goals,we are putting an important part of creativ-
ity where it belongs-in the hands of the working,thinking writer.