数论第二周

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Congruence(同余)

Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑚 be integers, with 𝑚 ≠ 0. Say 𝑎 is congruent to 𝑏 modulo 𝑚 (𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) if 𝑚| (𝑎 − 𝑏) .
Example:
3 ≡ 27 𝑚𝑜𝑑 12
−3 ≡ 11 𝑚𝑜𝑑 7

if 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 and 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 ,
𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 + 𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚

Likewise,
if 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 , then 𝑎𝑘 ≡ 𝑏𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚(√)

If 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 and 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 , then 𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 .（×）
If 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 , then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 .（×）

Definition Residue System（剩余系）

A complete residue system（完全剩余系） mod 𝑚 is a collection of integer 𝑎1𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 such
that 𝑎𝑖 ≠ 𝑎𝑗 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and any integer 𝑛 is congruent to some 𝑎𝑖 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚.
A reduced residue system（简化剩余系） mod 𝑚 is a collection of integer 𝑎1𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚 such that
𝑎𝑖 ≠ 𝑎𝑗 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and 𝑔𝑐𝑑 𝑎𝑖, 𝑚 = 1 for all 𝑖, and any integer 𝑛 coprime to 𝑚
must be congruent to some 𝑎𝑖 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚.

Example:

If m=9，then
Complete Residue System: {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} 1~m
Reduced Residue System: {1,2,4,5,7,8} m的完全剩余系中与m互素的数构成的子集

Euler’s Totient Function（欧拉函数）

The number of elements in a reduced residue system mod 𝑚 is called Euler’s Totient Function 𝜙(𝑚) .

𝜙 (9) = 6 𝜙(10) = 4

就是简约剩余系中元素个数

Euler’s Theorem（欧拉定理）

后面会用来证明费马小定理

$if\, gcd(a,m)=1\: \: then\, a^{\Phi{m} } \equiv 1\, mod\, m$

$3^{\Phi (10)}\, =\, 81\, \equiv \, 1\, mod\, 10$

Fermat’s little Theorem(费马小定理)

if 𝑝 is a prime and 𝑎 is an integer, then $a^{p}\, \equiv \, a\, mod\, p$

证明非常简洁

Inverse of elements mod 𝑚（模逆元）

If 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎, 𝑚) = 1, then there is a unique integer 𝑏 mod 𝑚 such that 𝑎𝑏 ≡ 1 mod 𝑚. The 𝑏 is denoted as $\frac{1}{a}$ or $a^{-1}$ mod 𝑚.

example:

$\frac{1}{5}$ mod 7 = $5^{-1}$ mod 7 = 3.

$x^{-1}$ mod p = ?就是求一个数与x相乘后mod p等于1

Wilson’s Theorem（威尔逊定理）

If 𝑝 is a prime then (𝑝 − 1) ! ≡ −1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝

Congruence equation(同余方程)

A congruence equation is of the form $a_{n}x^{n}+a_{n-1}x^{n-1}+...+a0$ ≡ 0 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
where {𝑎𝑛, 𝑎𝑛−1, ⋯ , 𝑎0} are integers.Solution of the congruence equation are integers or residue classes mod 𝑚 that satisfy the equation.

同余方程(组)的解为整数或剩余集mod m满足方程的数

example:

$x^{2}$ ≡ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑑 15. Answer is {±1, ±4 𝑚𝑜𝑑 15}.

Linear Congruence Equation (线性同余方程)

A congruence equation of degree 1 (𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚)

Theorem： Let 𝑔 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎,𝑚), then there is a solution to 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 if and only if
𝑔|𝑏. If it has solutions, then it has exactly 𝑔 solutions mod 𝑚.

example:

4𝑥 ≡ 6 𝑚𝑜𝑑 10
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(4,10) = 2 and 2|6
In fact, it has 𝑔 = 2 solutions.