高数 02.05函数的微分

$\color{blue}{第二章 第五节 函数的微分}$

一、微分的概念
二、微分的几何意义
三、微分运算法则

$\color{blue}{一、微分的概念}$

$引例：一块正方形金属薄片受温度变化的影响，其边长由x_0变到x_0+\Delta{x},\\ 问此薄片面积改变了多少?$
$设薄片边长为x,面积为A,则A = x^2， 当边长x_0取得增量\Delta{x}时,面积的增量为:$
$\Delta{A} = (x_0 + \Delta{x})^2 - x_0^2$
$= \quad \color{green}{\begin{matrix} \underbrace{ 2x_0 \Delta{x} } \end{matrix} }\qquad + \qquad \color{blue}{\begin{matrix} \underbrace{ (\Delta{x})^2 } \end{matrix}}$
${\color{green}{关于\Delta{x}的线性主部} } \qquad {\color{blue}{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0时为高阶无穷小} }$
$故 \Delta{A} \approx 2x_0 \Delta{x}$
$2x_0 \Delta{x}称为函数在x_0的微分$

$\color{blue}{定义:若函数y = f(x) 在点x_0的增量可表示为 \\ \Delta{y} = f(x_0 + \Delta{x}) - f(x_0) = A \Delta{x} + o(\Delta{x}) \\ \qquad \qquad (A为不依赖与\Delta{x}的常数) \\ 则称函数 y = f(x)在点x_0处可微，而A\Delta{x}称为f(x)在 \\ 点x_0的微分,记作dy或df,即 \\ \qquad \qquad dy = A \Delta{x} \\ 定理：函数y = f(x)在点x_0可微的充要条件是\\ y = f(x)在点x_0处可导,且A = f^{\prime}(x_0),即 \\ \qquad dy = f^{\prime}(x_0) \Delta{x} \\ 证：必要性\\ 已知 y = f(x) 在点x_0可微,则\\ \Delta{y} = f(x_0 + \Delta{x}) - f(x_0) = A \Delta{x} + o(\Delta{x}) \\ \therefore \lim_{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0}{\dfrac{\Delta{y}}{\Delta{x}}} = \lim_{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0}(A + \dfrac{o(\Delta{x})}{\Delta{x}}) = A\\ 故 y = f(x)在点x_0处可导,且f^{\prime}(x_0) = A\\ \ \\ 充分性:\\ 已知y = f(x)在点x_0处可导,则\\ \lim_{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0}{\dfrac{\Delta{y}}{\Delta{x}}} = f^{\prime}(x_0) \\ \because \dfrac{\Delta{y}}{\Delta{x}} = f^{\prime}(x_0) + \alpha (\lim_{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0}{\alpha} = 0) \\ 故\quad \Delta{y} = f^{\prime}(x_0)\Delta{x} + \alpha \Delta{x} = {\begin{matrix} \underbrace{ f^{\prime}(x_0)\Delta{x} } \end{matrix} } + o(\Delta{x}) \\ \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad 线性主部 \ (f^{\prime}(x_0) \neq 0时) \\ 即 dy = f^{\prime}(x_0) \Delta{x} \\ \ \\ 说明：\Delta{y} = f^{\prime}(x_0) \Delta{x} + o(\Delta{x}) \\ dy = f^{\prime}(x_0) \Delta{x} \\ 当f^{\prime}(x_0) \neq 0时, \\ \lim_{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0}{\dfrac{\Delta{y}}{dy} = \lim_{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0}{\dfrac{\Delta{y}}{f^{\prime}(x_0) \Delta{x}}}} \\ = \dfrac{1}{f^{\prime}(x_0)} \lim_{\Delta{x} \rightarrow 0}{\dfrac{\Delta{y}}{\Delta{x}}} = 1 \\ 所以 \Delta{x} \rightarrow 0时, \Delta{y} 与 dy是等价无穷小,故当|\Delta{x}|很小时,有近似公式： \\ \Delta{y} \approx dy }$

$\color{blue}{二、微分的几何意义}$

切线纵坐标的增量
$dy = f^{\prime}(x_0) \Delta{x} = \tan{\alpha} \cdot \Delta{x}$
$当\Delta{x} 很小时,\Delta{y} \approx dy$
$当y = x时, \Delta{y} = \Delta{x} \stackrel{\color{green}{记}}{=} dx$
$称\Delta{x}为自变量的微分,记作dx$
$则有 dy = f^{\prime}(x)dx$
$从而 \dfrac{dy}{dx} = f^{\prime}(x) [导数也叫作微商]$

$例如, y = x^3, \left. dy \right|_{\left. \begin{array}{l}x = 2 \\ dx = 0.02 \end{array} \right.} = 3x^2 \cdot dx|_{\left. \begin{array}{l}x = 2 \\ dx = 0.02 \end{array} \right.} = 0.24$
$基本初等函数的微分公式$

导数公式	微分公式
$(x^{\mu})^{\prime} = \mu x^{\mu - 1}$	$d(x^{\mu}) = \mu x^{\mu - 1} dx$
$(\sin{x})^{\prime} = \cos{x}$	$d(\sin{x}) = \cos{x} dx$
$(\cos{x})^{\prime} = -\sin{x}$	$d(\cos{x}) = -\sin{x} dx$
$(\tan{x})^{\prime} = \sec^2{x}$	$d(\tan{x}) =\sec^2{x} dx$
$(\cot{x})^{\prime} = -csc^2{x}$	$d(\cot{x}) = -csc^2{x} dx$
$(sec{x})^{\prime} = \sec{x} \tan{x}$	$d(\sec{x}) = \sec{x} \tan{x} dx$
$(\csc{x})^{\prime} = -\csc{x} \cot{x}$	$d(\csc{x}) = -\csc{x} \cot{x} dx$
$(a^x)^{\prime} = a^x \ln a$	$d(a^x) = a^x \ln a dx$
$(e^x)^{\prime} = e^x$	$d(e^x) = e^x dx$
$(\log_a{x})^{\prime} = \dfrac{1}{x \ln{a}}$	$d(\log_a{x}) = \dfrac{1}{x \ln{a}} dx$
$(\ln {x})^{\prime} = \dfrac{1}{x}$	$d(\ln {x}) = \dfrac{1}{x} dx$
$(\arcsin{x})^{\prime} = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}}$	$d(\arcsin{x}) = \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} dx$
$(\arccos{x})^{\prime} = -\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}}$	$d(\arccos{x}) = - \dfrac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} dx$
$(\arctan{x})^{\prime} = \dfrac{1}{1 + x^2}$	$d(\arctan{x}) = \dfrac{1}{1 + x^2} dx$
$(arccot {x})^{\prime} = -\dfrac{1}{1 + x^2}$	$d(arccot{x}) = -\dfrac{1}{1 + x^2} dx$

$\color{blue}{三、微分运算法则}$

$设 u(x), v(x)均可微,则$
$1. d(u \pm v) = du \pm dv \\ 2.d(Cu) = Cdu (C为常数) \\ 3.d(uv) = vdu + udv \\ 4.d(\dfrac{u}{v}) = \dfrac{vdu - udv}{v^2} (v \neq 0)$
$5.复合函数的微分\\ y = f(u), u = \varphi(x)分别可微\\ 则复合函数 y = f[\varphi(x)]的微分为\\ dy = y^{\prime}_x dx = f^{\prime}(u) \varphi^{\prime}(x) dx$
$\varphi^{\prime}(x)dx \rightarrow du$
$dy = f^{\prime}(u)du 微分形式不变$

$例1.y = \ln(1 + e^{x^2})$
$\color{blue}{解:\\ dy = \dfrac{1}{1 + e^{x^2}} d(1 + e^{x^2}) \\ = \dfrac{e^{x^2}}{1 + e^{x^2}} d(x^2) \\ = \dfrac{2e^{x^2}}{1 + e^{x^2}} dx }$

$例2.设 y\sin{x} - \cos(x - y) = 0,求dy.$
$\color{blue}{解：\\ 利用一阶微分形式不变性,有\\ d(y\sin{x} - \cos(x - y)) = 0 \\ d(y\sin{x}) - d(\cos(x - y)) = 0 \\ dy \sin{x} + y d(\sin{x}) +\sin(x - y)(dx - dy) = 0 \\ dy \sin{x} + y \cos{x} dx + \sin(x - y)(dx - dy) = 0 \\ dy = \dfrac{y \cos{x} + \sin(x - y)}{\sin(x - y) - \sin{x}} dx \\ }$

$例3.在下列括号中填入适当的函数使等式成立:$
$(1) d(\dfrac{1}{2} x^2 + C) = x dx$
$(2) d(\dfrac{1}{\omega} \sin{\omega t} + C) = \cos{\omega t} dt$
$说明：上述微分的反问题是不定积分要研究的内容$
$注意：数学中的反问题往往出现多值性$