管理学术语整理（1）

一、intermediary

        An intermediary, in a business or economic context, is an entity or person that acts as a middleman between two parties in a transaction. Intermediaries facilitate the exchange of goods, services, or information between producers and consumers. They play a crucial role in various industries by providing a bridge that can make transactions more efficient, less costly, or more accessible to both parties.
        Here are some common types of intermediaries and their functions:

1. Distributors：They purchase products from manufacturers and sell them to retailers or directly to customers, often providing additional services like storage, transportation, and marketing.
2. Wholesalers：Similar to distributors, wholesalers buy in bulk from manufacturers and sell in smaller quantities to retailers, although they may not offer the same level of service as distributors.
3. Retailers：They sell products directly to consumers, often in small quantities. Retailers can be brick-and-mortar stores, online shops, or a combination of both.
4. Agents and Brokers：These individuals or firms act on behalf of buyers or sellers to negotiate transactions. They do not take ownership of the products but earn a commission for their services.
5. Banks:：In financial transactions, banks act as intermediaries by providing services such as savings accounts, loans, and payment processing.
6. Insurance Companies：They intermediate between individuals or organizations seeking insurance coverage and the underwriters who provide the insurance.
7. Online Marketplaces：Platforms like Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba enable transactions between buyers and sellers without the need for physical intermediaries.
8. Travel Agents： They help customers book flights, hotels, and other travel-related services, often accessing bulk rates from suppliers.

        The role of intermediaries can include:

• Reducing Search Costs： By bringing together buyers and sellers, intermediaries can save both parties time and effort in finding each other.
• Providing Market Expertise**: Intermediaries often have specialized knowledge about the market they operate in, which can be valuable to both suppliers and consumers.
• Assuming Risks：Intermediaries may take on certain risks associated with transactions, such as credit risk or the risk of holding inventory.
• Adding Value：They can add value by providing services like product assembly, customization, or after-sales support.

        However, intermediaries also add costs to the supply chain, which can lead to higher prices for consumers. This is where the concept of disintermediation comes into play, which is the process of removing intermediaries from a supply chain to increase efficiency and reduce costs.

二、the double-marginalization effect（双重边际效益）

2.1 知乎

https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/603240665?utm_id=0

2.2 智谱清言

        The double-marginalization effect is an economic concept that arises in vertical markets, where goods or services pass through multiple layers of production and distribution before reaching the final consumer. It refers to the situation where two or more successive firms in a supply chain add a markup (or margin) to the cost of a product or service, leading to a higher final price than would be optimal if the supply chain were integrated.

        Here's a simplified explanation of the double-marginalization effect:

1. First Marginalization：The manufacturer or producer of a product adds a margin (profit) to the cost of production to set the wholesale price. This margin is necessary to cover the producer's costs and to make a profit.
2. Second Marginalization：The distributor or retailer then takes the wholesale price and adds another margin to determine the retail price. This second margin is also necessary for the distributor/retailer to cover their costs and make a profit.

        The double-marginalization effect can lead to several issues:

• Higher Prices for Consumers：The cumulative margins can lead to a final price that is higher than it would be if the product moved through a single, integrated entity, which could set a lower overall price to maximize sales volume.
• Reduced Efficiency：The multiple markups can result in inefficiencies in the supply chain, as each layer may optimize its own profits without considering the overall welfare of the supply chain.
• Lower Quantities Sold：Higher prices can lead to lower quantities sold, which can be detrimental to overall market efficiency and consumer welfare.

        To mitigate the double-marginalization effect, companies might consider various strategies, such as:

• Vertical Integration：A company might own multiple stages of the supply chain to control pricing and reduce markups.
• Two-part Tariffs：Charging a fixed fee plus a per-unit price can help align incentives and reduce the double mark-up.
• Collaborative Pricing Agreements：Companies in the supply chain might work together to set prices in a way that reduces the double-marginalization effect.

The double-marginalization effect is a key consideration in antitrust economics and supply chain management, as it can impact market outcomes and the competitiveness of different market structures.

三、businness mode

        "Business model" 在中文中通常被翻译为“商业模式”，它指的是一个企业如何创造、传递和捕获价值的基本原理，即企业如何赚钱的方式。商业模式描述了公司在市场上的定位，包括其客户群体、价值主张、收入来源、成本结构、关键活动、关键合作伙伴、关键资源以及关键渠道等核心商业运作方面。
        以下是商业模式的关键组成部分：

1. 价值主张：企业提供给客户的产品或服务的价值所在，即企业解决的问题或满足的需求。
2. 客户细分：企业目标客户群体的划分，包括不同类型的客户及其需求。
3. 渠道：企业如何与客户建立联系，传递价值主张，包括销售和分销渠道。
4. 客户关系：企业如何与客户建立和维护关系，包括客户服务和支持。
5. 收入来源：企业的盈利方式，如销售产品、提供服务、广告、订阅费等。
6. 关键资源：企业运作所需的重要资产、知识和人力资源。
7. 关键活动：企业为了实现其商业模式必须进行的主要操作和流程。
8. 关键合作伙伴：企业为了有效运作而需要合作的其他企业或个人。
9. 成本结构：企业运营所发生的所有成本，包括固定成本和变动成本。

        商业模式创新是企业在竞争中获得优势的一种方式，通过设计或调整商业模式，企业可以找到新的增长点，提高效率和盈利能力。

四、Order fulfillment service

        "Order fulfillment service" 在中文中通常指的是“订单履行服务”。这是供应链管理的一个关键环节，涉及接受订单、处理订单、准备货物、发货以及管理退货等一系列过程。具体来说，订单履行服务包括以下几个方面：

1. 1. 订单接收：获取客户订单信息，可以是线上电商平台、电话、邮件等多种方式。
2. 2. 订单处理：确认订单详情，包括商品、数量、价格、客户信息等。
3. 3. 仓储管理：从仓库中选取订单中的商品。
4. 4. 包装：将商品进行适当的包装，确保运输过程中不受损害。
5. 5. 发货：通过快递、物流等方式将商品送达客户手中。
6. 6. 售后服务：处理退货、换货以及客户咨询等售后服务问题。

        订单履行服务是电子商务和零售业中非常重要的组成部分，对于提升客户满意度和忠诚度具有重要作用。

五、wholesale contract and Agency contract

        Wholesale Contract and Agency Contract are two different types of business agreements that govern the relationship between parties in a supply chain. Here's a brief overview of each:

5.1 Wholesale Contract

        A wholesale contract is an agreement between a manufacturer or supplier and a wholesaler or distributor. The terms of this contract typically include:

• Product Supply: The manufacturer agrees to supply the wholesaler with a certain quantity of products.
• Pricing: The contract specifies the prices at which the wholesaler will purchase the products from the manufacturer.
• Volume Discounts: There may be provisions for discounts based on the volume of products purchased.
• Delivery Terms: The contract outlines the terms of delivery, including shipping methods, timing, and costs.
• Payment Terms: Details on how and when payments will be made are included.
• Territory: The contract may define the geographic area where the wholesaler can sell the products.
• Exclusivity: In some cases, the contract may grant the wholesaler exclusive rights to distribute the manufacturer's products in a certain area.
• Minimum Order Quantities: There might be minimum order requirements that the wholesaler must meet.

        Wholesale contracts are typically focused on the transfer of ownership and the conditions under which products are sold in bulk to the wholesaler, who then sells them to retailers or other businesses.

5.2 Agency Contract

        An agency contract is an agreement where one party (the principal) authorizes another party (the agent) to act on their behalf in certain transactions. Key aspects of an agency contract include:

• Representation: The agent is authorized to represent the principal in business transactions.
• Authority: The contract defines the scope of the agent's authority to act on behalf of the principal.
• Commission: The agent typically earns a commission on sales or other transactions they facilitate.
• Liability: The contract may specify the extent to which the principal is liable for the agent's actions.
• Duties: The agent has a duty to act in the best interests of the principal and to follow their instructions.
• Termination: The contract includes terms for terminating the agreement.

        Agency contracts are often used in sales, where an agent will find customers for the principal's products or services without taking ownership of the goods. The agent's role is to facilitate the transaction between the principal and the third party.

5.3 Differences

• Ownership：In a wholesale contract, ownership of the goods typically transfers from the manufacturer to the wholesaler. In an agency contract, the agent does not take ownership of the goods; they merely facilitate the sale.
• Risk: In a wholesale contract, the wholesaler assumes more risk, as they take ownership of the inventory. In an agency contract, the principal retains ownership and the associated risks.
• Profit Margin: Wholesalers typically make a profit based on the difference between the purchase price and the selling price. Agents make a profit through commissions on the sales they generate.
• Control: Principals have more control over agents through the agency contract, as agents act on their behalf and follow their instructions. In a wholesale contract, the wholesaler has more autonomy over how they sell the products.

六、revenue structure

        The revenue structure of a business refers to the way in which a company generates income from its operations. It encompasses the various sources of revenue, the methods of earning that revenue, and the proportion of revenue that comes from each source. Understanding a company's revenue structure is crucial for financial analysis, strategic planning, and assessing the company's profitability and growth potential.
        Here are some common elements and types of revenue structures:

• 1. **Product Sales**: Revenue from selling physical products. This can include one-time sales, repeat purchases, or sales of durable goods versus consumables.
• 2. **Service Fees**: Income generated from providing services such as consulting, legal advice, healthcare, or maintenance and repairs.
• 3. **Subscription Models**: Regular revenue from customers who pay a recurring fee for access to products, services, or content, often on a monthly or annual basis.
• 4. **Licensing**: Income from allowing other businesses to use a company's intellectual property, brands, or technology in exchange for royalties or licensing fees.
• 5. **Advertising**: Revenue from selling advertising space on a website, in a publication, or during a broadcast.
• 6. **Affiliate Marketing**: Earnings from promoting other companies' products and receiving a commission for sales or leads generated.
• 7. **Rentals**: Income from leasing out physical assets such as real estate, equipment, or vehicles.
• 8. **Transaction Fees**: Revenue from charging fees for each transaction processed, common in financial services and e-commerce platforms.
• 9. **Government Grants or Subsidies**: Income from government programs that support certain activities or industries.
• 10. **Donations**: For non-profit organizations, revenue from contributions or donations from individuals, corporations, or foundations.
• 11. **Concession Sales**: Income from selling the right to operate certain services or sell products in a specific location, such as at a stadium or airport.
• 12. **Interest and Investments**: Revenue from interest earned on loans, savings, or investments.

        Characteristics of a revenue structure might include:

• - **Diversification**: The extent to which revenue is spread across multiple sources, reducing risk.
• - **Predictability**: The stability and predictability of revenue streams, which can affect financial planning.
• - **Growth Potential**: The scalability of revenue sources and the potential for future growth.
• - **Profit Margins**: The profitability of each revenue stream, which can influence business strategy.

        Analyzing a company's revenue structure can help identify strengths and weaknesses, opportunities for growth, and areas where the company may be over-reliant on a single revenue source. It can also inform decisions related to pricing, product development, market expansion, and investment.