常见图算法整理geeksforgeeks

1. KMP (Knuth Morris Pratt) Pattern Searching

The KMP matching algorithm uses degenerating property (pattern having same sub-patterns appearing more than once in the pattern) of the pattern and improves the worst case complexity to O(n). The basic idea behind KMP’s algorithm is: whenever we detect a mismatch (after some matches), we already know some of the characters in the text of the next window. We take advantage of this information to avoid matching the characters that we know will anyway match.

Preprocessing Overview:

1. KMP algorithm preprocesses pat[] and constructs an auxiliary lps[] of size m (same as size of pattern) which is used to skip characters while matching.
2. name lps indicates longest proper prefix which is also suffix… A proper prefix is prefix with whole string not allowed. For example, prefixes of “ABC” are “”, “A”, “AB” and “ABC”. Proper prefixes are “”, “A” and “AB”. Suffixes of the string are “”, “C”, “BC” and “ABC”.
3. We search for lps in sub-patterns. More clearly we focus on sub-strings of patterns that are either prefix and suffix.
4. For each sub-pattern pat[0…i] where i = 0 to m-1, lps[i] stores length of the maximum matching proper prefix which is also a suffix of the sub-pattern pat[0…i].
   lps[i] = the longest proper prefix of pat[0…i] which is also a suffix of pat[0…i].

In the preprocessing part, we calculate values in lps[]. To do that, we keep track of the length of the longest prefix suffix value (we use len variable for this purpose) for the previous index. We initialize lps[0] and len as 0. If pat[len] and pat[i] match, we increment len by 1 and assign the incremented value to lps[i]. If pat[i] and pat[len] do not match and len is not 0, we update len to lps[len-1].

Searching Algorithm:
Unlike Naive algorithm, where we slide the pattern by one and compare all characters at each shift, we use a value from lps[] to decide the next characters to be matched. The idea is to not match a character that we know will anyway match. How to use lps[] to decide next positions (or to know a number of characters to be skipped)?

1. We start comparison of pat[j] with j = 0 with characters of current window of text.
2. We keep matching characters txt[i] and pat[j] and keep incrementing i and j while pat[j] and txt[i] keep matching.
3. When we see a mismatch
   a) We know that characters pat[0…j-1] match with txt[i-j…i-1] (Note that j starts with 0 and increment it only when there is a match).
   b) We also know (from above definition) that lps[j-1] is count of characters of pat[0…j-1] that are both proper prefix and suffix.
   c) From above two points, we can conclude that we do not need to match these lps[j-1] characters with txt[i-j…i-1] because we know that these characters will anyway match. Let us consider above example to understand this.

2. Kruskal’s Minimum Spanning Tree Algorithm

Given a connected and undirected graph, a spanning tree of that graph is a subgraph that is a tree and connects all the vertices together. A single graph can have many different spanning trees. A minimum spanning tree (MST) or minimum weight spanning tree for a weighted, connected, undirected graph is a spanning tree with a weight less than or equal to the weight of every other spanning tree. The weight of a spanning tree is the sum of weights given to each edge of the spanning tree. A minimum spanning tree has (V – 1) edges where V is the number of vertices in the given graph. Below are the steps for finding MST using Kruskal’s algorithm

1. Sort all the edges in non-decreasing order of their weight.
2. Pick the smallest edge. Check if it forms a cycle with the spanning tree formed so far. If cycle is not formed, include this edge. Else, discard it. Step #2 uses the Union-Find algorithm to detect cycles.
3. Repeat step#2 until there are (V-1) edges in the spanning tree.

使用反证法证明正确性，

1. 有kruskal算法构成的生成树T和异于T的生成树T，这两种生成树。
2. 定义函数f(T)表示不在T中的最小权值的边ek。假设T* 不是最小树，T真正的最小树，也就是说e1,e2,…e(k-1)同时在T和T*中，ek不在T中
3. T+ek包含唯一圈C（如果不是唯一圈，说明T中已经有一个圈了，与T是树相悖）。设ek’是C的一条边，他在T中而不在T*中，且w(ek’) > w(ek)
4. W(T ‘) =W(T)+w(ek)-w(ek’ ) < W(T)，kruskal算法选出的是最小权边ek，而ek’是T自己根据f(T)选出来的边，有w(ek’ )>w(ek)，T不再是最小数，相悖。

3. Prim’s Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)

Like Kruskal’s algorithm, Prim’s algorithm is also a Greedy algorithm. It starts with an empty spanning tree. The idea is to maintain two sets of vertices. The first set contains the vertices already included in the MST, the other set contains the vertices not yet included. At every step, it considers all the edges that connect the two sets, and picks the minimum weight edge from these edges. After picking the edge, it moves the other endpoint of the edge to the set containing MST.

A group of edges that connects two set of vertices in a graph is called cut in graph theory. So, at every step of Prim’s algorithm, we find a cut (of two sets, one contains the vertices already included in MST and other contains rest of the vertices), pick the minimum weight edge from the cut and include this vertex to MST Set (the set that contains already included vertices).

The idea behind Prim’s algorithm is simple, a spanning tree means all vertices must be connected. So the two disjoint subsets (discussed above) of vertices must be connected to make a Spanning Tree. And they must be connected with the minimum weight edge to make it a Minimum Spanning Tree.

Algorithm

1. Create a set mstSet that keeps track of vertices already included in MST.
2. Assign a key value to all vertices in the input graph. Initialize all key values as INFINITE. Assign key value as 0 for the first vertex so that it is picked first.
3. While mstSet doesn’t include all vertices
   a) Pick a vertex u which is not there in mstSet and has minimum key value.
   b) Include u to mstSet.
   c) Update key value of all adjacent vertices of u. To update the key values, iterate through all adjacent vertices. For every adjacent vertex v, if weight of edge u-v is less than the previous key value of v, update the key value as weight of u-v

The idea of using key values is to pick the minimum weight edge from cut. The key values are used only for vertices which are not yet included in MST, the key value for these vertices indicate the minimum weight edges connecting them to the set of vertices included in MST.

4. Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm

Given a graph and a source vertex in the graph, find the shortest paths from the source to all vertices in the given graph. Dijkstra’s algorithm is very similar to Prim’s algorithm for minimum spanning tree. Like Prim’s MST, we generate a SPT (shortest path tree) with a given source as a root. We maintain two sets, one set contains vertices included in the shortest-path tree, other set includes vertices not yet included in the shortest-path tree. At every step of the algorithm, we find a vertex that is in the other set (set of not yet included) and has a minimum distance from the source. Below are the detailed steps used in Dijkstra’s algorithm to find the shortest path from a single source vertex to all other vertices in the given graph.

1. Create a set sptSet (shortest path tree set) that keeps track of vertices included in the shortest-path tree, i.e., whose minimum distance from the source is calculated and finalized. Initially, this set is empty.
2. Assign a distance value to all vertices in the input graph. Initialize all distance values as INFINITE. Assign distance value as 0 for the source vertex so that it is picked first.
3. While sptSet doesn’t include all vertices
   a) Pick a vertex u which is not there in sptSet and has a minimum distance value.
   b) Include u to sptSet.
   c) Update distance value of all adjacent vertices of u. To update the distance values, iterate through all adjacent vertices. For every adjacent vertex v, if the sum of distance value of u (from source) and weight of edge u-v, is less than the distance value of v, then update the distance value of v.

Prim’s algorithm constructs a minimum spanning tree for the graph, which is a tree that connects all nodes in the graph and has the least total cost among all trees that connect all the nodes. However, the length of a path between any two nodes in the MST might not be the shortest path between those two nodes in the original graph. MSTs are useful, for example, if you wanted to physically wire up the nodes in the graph to provide electricity to them at the least total cost. It doesn’t matter that the path length between two nodes might not be optimal, since all you care about is the fact that they’re connected.

Dijkstra’s algorithm constructs a shortest path tree starting from some source node. A shortest path tree is a tree that connects all nodes in the graph back to the source node and has the property that the length of any path from the source node to any other node in the graph is minimized. This is useful, for example, if you wanted to build a road network that made it as efficient as possible for everyone to get to some major important landmark. However, the shortest path tree is not guaranteed to be a minimum spanning tree, and the sum of the costs on the edges of a shortest-path tree can be much larger than the cost of an MST.

Another important difference concerns what types of graphs the algorithms work on. Prim’s algorithm works on undirected graphs only, since the concept of an MST assumes that graphs are inherently undirected. (There is something called a “minimum spanning arborescence” for directed graphs, but algorithms to find them are much more complicated). Dijkstra’s algorithm will work fine on directed graphs, since shortest path trees can indeed be directed. Additionally, Dijkstra’s algorithm does not necessarily yield the correct solution in graphs containing negative edge weights, while Prim’s algorithm can handle this.

5. Bellman–Ford Algorithm

Given a graph and a source vertex src in graph, find shortest paths from src to all vertices in the given graph. The graph may contain negative weight edges. Dijkstra doesn’t work for Graphs with negative weight edges, Bellman-Ford works for such graphs. Bellman-Ford is also simpler than Dijkstra and suites well for distributed systems. But time complexity of Bellman-Ford is O(VE), which is more than Dijkstra. Following are the detailed steps.

Input: Graph and a source vertex src

Output: Shortest distance to all vertices from src. If there is a negative weight cycle, then shortest distances are not calculated, negative weight cycle is reported.

1. This step initializes distances from the source to all vertices as infinite and distance to the source itself as 0. Create an array dist[] of size |V| with all values as infinite except dist[src] where src is source vertex.
2. This step calculates shortest distances. Do following |V|-1 times where |V| is the number of vertices in given graph.
   a) Do following for each edge u-v
   b) If dist[v] > dist[u] + weight of edge uv, then update dist[v] = dist[u] + weight of edge uv
3. This step reports if there is a negative weight cycle in graph. Do following for each edge u-v. If dist[v] > dist[u] + weight of edge uv, then “Graph contains negative weight cycle”

The idea of step 3 is, step 2 guarantees the shortest distances if the graph doesn’t contain a negative weight cycle. If we iterate through all edges one more time and get a shorter path for any vertex, then there is a negative weight cycle

How does this work? Like other Dynamic Programming Problems, the algorithm calculates shortest paths in a bottom-up manner. It first calculates the shortest distances which have at-most one edge in the path. Then, it calculates the shortest paths with at-most 2 edges, and so on. After the i-th iteration of the outer loop, the shortest paths with at most i edges are calculated. There can be maximum |V| – 1 edges in any simple path, that is why the outer loop runs |v| – 1 times. The idea is, assuming that there is no negative weight cycle, if we have calculated shortest paths with at most i edges, then an iteration over all edges guarantees to give shortest path with at-most (i+1) edges.

Paths with no repeated vertices are called simple-paths, so you are looking for the shortest simple-path in a graph with negative-cycles. This can be reduced from the longest-path problem. If there were a fast solver for your problem, then given a graph with only positive edge-weights, negating all the edge-weights and running your solver would give the longest path in the original graph. Thus your problem is NP-Hard.

Can we use Dijkstra’s algorithm for shortest paths for graphs with negative weights – one idea can be, calculate the minimum weight value, add a positive value (equal to absolute value of minimum weight value) to all weights and run the Dijkstra’s algorithm for the modified graph. Will this algorithm work? No it doesn’t work. If a path contains multiple edges, that positive values will be added multiple times to this path.

6. Floyd Warshall Algorithm

The Floyd Warshall Algorithm is for solving the All Pairs Shortest Path problem. The problem is to find shortest distances between every pair of vertices in a given edge weighted directed Graph. We initialize the solution matrix same as the input graph matrix as a first step. Then we update the solution matrix by considering all vertices as an intermediate vertex. The idea is to one by one pick all vertices and updates all shortest paths which include the picked vertex as an intermediate vertex in the shortest path. When we pick vertex number k as an intermediate vertex, we already have considered vertices {0, 1, 2, … k-1} as intermediate vertices. For every pair (i, j) of the source and destination vertices respectively, there are two possible cases.

1. k is not an intermediate vertex in shortest path from i to j. We keep the value of dist[i][j] as it is.
2. k is an intermediate vertex in shortest path from i to j. We update the value of dist[i][j] as dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] if dist[i][j] > dist[i][k] + dist[k][j].
   Each step we get shortest path between each pair via vertices only from {0, 1, 2, …, k}. Finally we get shortest path via all vertices.