形式化方法(一) 逻辑部分概念梳理

逻辑部分概念梳理

Logic 逻辑

• Logic is a normative and/or prescriptive science
  逻辑是一门规范性的科学
  
  • deals with what entails or what follows from what 解决两者间的推导关系
  • aims at determining which are the correct coclusions of a given set of premises.判断在一些给定前提下的结论是否正确
  • It is a normative science to evaluate various arguments.是一门评估各种不同的论据的规范性的科学
• Logic is NOT a science dealing with thinking逻辑不是一门解决思考问题的科学
  
  • It is a familiar misconception to believe that to do mathematical logic is to be engaged primarily in formal thinking. The important point is rather to make precise the concept of formal and thereby be able to reason mathematically about formal systems. And this adds a new dimension to mathematics. 认为上算术逻辑主要是从事形式化的思考是一个常见的误解。而真正的重点是使形式化的概念更精确并因此能够在形式化系统中通过算术推导解决问题，这给数学提供了一个新的研究范畴

Reason 推想

• Reasoning is the process of drawing new conclusions from given premises, which are already known facts or previously assumed hypotheses to provides some evidence for the conclusions.推想是从给定的前提得到新的结论的过程，这些给定的前提包含能够为结论提供证据的已经证实的事实和曾经提出的假设
• Resoning is an ordered process, a reasoning consists of a number of arguments ( or inferences ) in some order. 推想是一个有序的过程，一个推想包含一些有序的论据和推断
• Resoningis a way to acquire new knowledge,reasoniong is the process of going from what we do know (premises)to what we prebiously did not know ( the new conclusions ).推想是获得新知识的一种方式，通过用已知的东西去探索未知
• Resoning is intrinsically ampliative 推想本质上一种拓展
• Resoning and Logic
  
  • Logic is primarily about inderring, about reasoningl in particular, it is the study of what constitutes correct reasoning.逻辑主要是研究推断和推想，尤其是研究如何构造正确的猜想
  • Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.逻辑致力于研究区分推想真伪的手段和准则

Argument 讨论

• Argument is a set of statements,of which
  
  • one statements is intended as the conclusion
  • one or more statements, called “premises”,are intended to provide some evidence for the conclusion.

讨论是一组陈述，一条陈述阐明结论，其余的一条或多条陈述，称作前提，目的在于为结论提供论据

• Argument is an evidential relation
  
  • an argument is a conclusion standing in relation to its supporting evidence,
  • In an argument, a claim is being made that there is some sort of evidential relation between its premises and its conclusion: the conclusion is supposed to follow from the premises, or equivalently, the premises are supposed to entail the conclusion.

一个讨论可以可以看作是基于证据的结论的论证关系，在一段讨论中，一类前提和结论间的论证关系会被阐明：结论要能通过前提推导，或者等价地说，前提能够推导出结论

• Argument and logic
  
  • Logic may be defined as the organized body of knowledge, or science, that evaluates arguments.逻辑可以被定义为评判讨论的知识结构主体或科学
  • The purpose of logic, as the science that evaluates arguments, is thus to develop methods and techniques that allow us to distinguish good arguments from bad.逻辑的目的是，作为一门评价讨论的科学，发展帮助我们区分讨论对错的手段或技术

Proving 证明

• Proving is the process of finding a justification for an explicitly specified statement from given premises, which are already known facts or previously assumend hypotheses.证明是从前提中发现足够的理由去显然地说明一个明确的陈述
• A proof is a description of a found justification.证明是一段对于理由的描述

Difference between Reasoning and Proving 推想和证明的区别

• The most intrinsic difference between reasoning and proving is that the former is intrinsically prescriptive and predictive while the latter is intrinsically descriptive and non-predictive本质上的区别是：推想是有规定性和预见性的，而证明是描述性的和非预见性的
• The purpose of reasoning is to find some new facts previously unknown or unrecognized, while the purpose of proving is to find a justification for some fact previously known or assumed.目的上的区别：推想是寻找一些之前不被认知的事实，而证明是为之前已经发现或者假设的事实寻找支持的理由
• Proving has an explicitly defined target as its goal while reasoning does not.证明有明确定义的证明方向，而推想是发散的

Deduction 推导

The process of deducing or drawing a conclusion from a principle already known or assumed.从已知或假设的规律推导出结论的过程

Induction 归纳(与推导相对)

The process of inferring a general law or principle from the observation of particular instances.通过观察特例断言出规律的过程

Abduction 猜想

A syllogism, of which the major premiss is certain, and the minor only probable, so that the coclusion has only the probability of the minor.一种大前提确定，但是小前提存在可能性，因此导致结论只有在小前提成立的情况下成立的演绎推理

Truth 正确性

• Truth is the attribute of a statement that asserts what really is the case. 正确性是判断实际情况的一个陈述的属性
• Truth and falsity are attributes of individual statements.正确性和错误性都是一个单体的陈述的属性。

Validity of deductive argument 推想的合法性

• When a deductive argument makes the claim that makes the claim that its premises( if correct ) provide irrefutable grounds for the correctness of its conlusion, that claim will be either correct or not correct.If it it correct,that argument is said to be valid 如果对于一个猜想作出了一个断言：它的前提能够确凿地证明结论的正确性，如果这个断言是正确的，那么称为这个推想是合法的

The classical accound of validity 充合法的经典解释

A deductive argument is valid if and only if it is impossible for all its premises to be true while its conclusion is false.一个推想是合法的当且仅当不存在所有前提正确但是结论错误的情况

Consistency of arguments 讨论的一致性

• An argument is consistent if and only if its conclusion may be true when all its preimises are true.一个讨论是不矛盾的当且仅当所有前提正确的情况下，结论可能是正确的
• An argument is inconsistent if and only if its conclusion must be false when all its premises are true.一个讨论是矛盾的当且仅当所有前提正确的情况下，结论必须是错误的

注意：
- Classically invalid arguments may be either consistent or inconsistent. 不合法的讨论可能是不矛盾也可能是矛盾的（通过定义易证）
- Consistent arguments may be either classically valid or classically invalid 不矛盾的讨论可能是合法的也可能是不合法的（通过定义易证）

Soundness of Argument 讨论健全性的讨论

An argument is sound if and only if it is valid and all its premises are true一个讨论是健全的当且仅当它是合法的且所有的前提都是正确的
注意：

• Sound arguments must be valid;invalid arguments are unsound. 健全的讨论一定是合法的
• Validx arguments may be either sound or unsound. 合法的讨论不一定是健全的

the notion of conditional 条件语的概念

A sentence of the form “if…then…”is usually called a conditional proposition or simply conditional which states that there exists a relationship of sufficient condition between the “if” part ( called antecedent ) and “then” part ( called consequent) of the sentence 一个形如“如果…那么…”的句子，存在从前项到结果的充分条件关系，那么这个句子是一个条件从句

Truth of conditional 条件语的正确性

The truth of a conditional depends not only on the truth of its antecedent and consequent but also more essentially on a necessarily relevant and conditional relation between its antecedent and consequent.条件语的正确性既决定于前项和结果本身的正确性也决定与前项和结果之间的相关关系的正确性

Empirical conditionals 实证条件语

• For a logic, a conditional is called an empirical conditional of the logic if its truth-value,in the sense of that logic, depends on the contents of its antecedent and consequent and therefore cannot be determined only by its abstract form如果一个条件语的正确性不能仅仅通过条件语的抽象形式，而是要根据前项和结果的内容，那么它是实证条件语
• From the viewpoint of that logic, the relevant relation between the antecedent and the consequent of an empirical conditional is considered to be empirical but not logical.从逻辑的观点来看，实证条件语的前项和结果的相关关系是根据经验判断的，而非逻辑判断

Logical conditionals 逻辑条件语

• For a logic, a conditional is called a logical conditional of the logic if its truth-value, in the sense of that logic,depends only on ots abstract form but not on the contents of its antecedent and consequent and therefore, it is considered to be universally true or false. 一个条件语的正确性如果是可以不结合内容只根据抽象形式进行判断，那么它是逻辑条件句，它的正确性是通用意义上的

Formal logic system 形式化逻辑方法

• Formal logic system $L =_{df}(F(L),\vdash_{L})$
  
  • F(L): A formal language ( call the ‘object language’ ), which is the set of all well-formed formulas of L 形式化语言中构造好的逻辑式的集合
  • $\vdash_{L}:$ A logical consequnce relation among the formulas of F(L), defined as $2^{F(L)} \rightarrow F(L)$,such that for premises $P \subseteq F(L)$ and conclusion $C \in F(L), P \vdash C$ means that within the framework of Lm C validly follows from P, or equivalently, P validly entails C. F(L)集合中的逻辑式的逻辑推论关系，既从集合F(L)中选取任意多个元素构成集合P(一共有$2^{\#F(L)}$中种选择方案)，C为F(L)中的任意元素，$P \vdash_L C$意味着结论C推导自前提P,前提P能推导出结论C

Logic theorems 逻辑定理

• For a formal logic system$(F(L),\vdash_L)$, a logical theorem T of L is a formula such that $\phi$ is a formula such that $\phi \vdash_L T$ where $\phi$ is the empty set.对于一个形式化方法，如果一个逻辑式不需要任何前提就是真的，那么这个逻辑式是逻辑定理
• $Th(L):$ the set of all logical theorems of L.一个形式化方法中所有逻辑定理构成的集合

Explosive logic systems explosive逻辑系统

• L is said to be explosive if and only if $\{A,\neg A\} \vdash_L B$ for any two different formulas A and B 一个形式化方法如果任意两个不同的逻辑式A,B，都存在矛盾的A和非A能推出B，那么这是一个explosive逻辑系统
• In an explosive logic system, anything is validly follows from premises with a contradiction, or equivalently,premises with a contradiction validly entails anything.同上

Paraconsistent logic systems 次协调逻辑系统

L is said to be paraconsistent if and only if it is not explosive.一个形式化方法当且仅当它不是explosive逻辑系统时，他是一个次协调逻辑系统

L-theory with premises P

• Let $(F(L),\vdash_L)$ be a logic system and $P\subseteq F(L)$ be a non-empty set of sentences .A formal theory with premises P based on L,called a L-theory with premises P and denoted by $T_L(P)$ is defined as
  $$T_L(P) =_{df}Th(L) \cup Th_L^e(P)$$
  $$Th_L^e(P) =_df\{P \vdash_L et\ \&\& \ et \notin Th(L) \}$$
  对于一个形式化语言L，有一个非空的逻辑式的集合P，能够通过前提P推导出一个逻辑式的集合，这个集合叫做这个形式化方法L在前提P下的理论，记作$T_L(P)$
• $Th(L):$ The logic part. 定理部分
• $Th_L^e(P):$ The empirical part, any element pf Th_L^e(P) is called an empirical theorem.实证部分
• $P$: The empirical axioms 实证公理

Formal theory 形式化理论

• A formal theory is a reperesentation of an area of the real world characterized by premises P in a symbolic world characterized by logic L. 一个形式化理论是对现实世界中被逻辑L抽象出的符号世界的前提P抽象出的现实世界的一部分的表现形式
• An area of the real world charactered by premises P may be represented by different formal theories characterized by diffrent logics抽象出的部分现实世界可以通过有不同的逻辑的表现形式

Inconsistent formal theories 矛盾的形式化理论

• $T_L(P)$ is said to be directly inconsistent if and only if there exits formula A of L such that both A $\in$P and $\neg A\in P$ hold.一个形式化理论如果存在一个逻辑式A和它的非式同时属于P，那么这个形式化理论就是一个直接矛盾的形式化理论
• $T_L(P)$ is said to ve indirectly inconsistent if and only if it is not directly inconsistent but there exits a formula A of L such both A $\in T_L(P)$and $\neg A \in T_L(P)$ 一个形式化理论，如果存在一个逻辑式A和它的非式同时属于$T_L(P)$,那么这个形式化理论就是一个间接矛盾的形式化理论

Consistent formal theories 不矛盾的形式化理论

$T_L(P)$ is said to be consistent if and only if it is neither directly inconsistent nor indirectly inconsistent.一个形式化理论，既不是直接矛盾的，也不是间接矛盾的，那么它就是不矛盾的形式化理论

Explosive formal theories 爆破形式化理论

• $T_L(P)$ is said to be explosive if and only if $A \in T_L(P))$for arbitrary formula A of L.
• If L is explosive, then any directly or indirectly inconsistent L-theory $T_L(P)$ must be explosive.
  一个形式化理论中，任意逻辑式属于$T_L(P)$

Paraconsistent formal theories 次协调形式化理论

• $T_L(P)$ is said to be paraconsistent if and only if it is not explosive.非explosive的形式化理论称为次协调形式化理论

Logical semantics 逻辑语义

• Relations between expressions in a language of logic can be determined in terms of properties that reach beyond language, through the expressions’ evaluation.在一个逻辑语言的表达式之间的关系的真值，不通过直接语言去判断，而是通过对每个表达式进行真值判断来决定
• To speak of the validity of an argument (inference) in terms of the relation of possible truth-values of the premises and the conclusion is to describe validity semantically.换言之，一个讨论的正确性是通过在任意条件下前提的可能的真值和结论可能的真值的关系来从语义上判断一个讨论的正确性

Semantical logical consequence relation 语义上的逻辑关系

• To define the (semantical) logical consequence relation among expressions, we usually describe a model, which is a structure in terms of which formulas are evaluated, and rules for their evaluation in a model.我们通常定义一个描述哪些逻辑式要被评价真值的模型，通过这个模型来判断表达式之间的逻辑关系
• Then one might say that a formula, C, is a logical consequence of others, P, or that the inference from P to C is semantically valid, just in case every model that verifies every formulas in P verifies C.如果每个能够证明出P中所有逻辑式的模型都能证明出C,那么对于一个逻辑式C,它是前提P推导出的逻辑结果是语义上正确的

Semantic (Model-theoretical or Logical) Consequence Relation 语义上的推论关系

• Let (F(L), ├L ) be a formal logic system. For any P ⊆ F(L) and any C ∈ F(L),
  
  • P semantically (model-theoretically or logically) entails C, or
  • C semantically (model-theoretically or logically) follows from P, or
  • C is a semantic (model-theoretical or logical) consequence of P,
• written as P |=L C, iff |=M(L) C $P \models_L C , iff \models_{M(L)} C$ for any model M(L) of P. 当且仅当任意的P的模型能够在语义上推导出C,那么P在语义上能推导出C
• ϕ |= L C means that |= M(L) C for any model M(L), i.e., C is a logical theorem of L. 任意L上的模型能够推到出C

Semantic (Model-theoretical) deduction theorem 语义推导

Let $(F(L),\vdash_L)$be a formal logic system.For any $P \subseteq F(L)$and any $A,B \in F(L)$,

$$P\cup \{A\} \models_L B \ \ iff\ P\models_L (A\rightarrow B)$$
$${A} \models_L B \ \ iff P\models_L (A\rightarrow B )$$

semantic (Model-theoretical) deduction theorem for finite consequences 语义推导推广到有限多个结果

Let $(F(L),\vdash_L)$be a formal logic system.For any$P \subseteq F(L)$ and any $A_1,\cdots A_{n-1},A_n,B \in F(L)$

$$P \cup \{A_1,\cdots A_{n-1},A_n\}\models_L B \ \ iff \ P\models ( A_1 \rightarrow ( \cdots \rightarrow ( A_n \rightarrow B ) ) )$$
$$\{A_1,\cdots A_{n-1},A_n\} \vdash B \models_L \ iff ( A_1 \rightarrow ( \cdots \rightarrow ( A_n \rightarrow B ) ) )$$

Proof Theory 证明论

Proof theory is the study of the general structure of mathematical proofs, and of arguments with demonstrative force as encountered in logic. 证明论是研究利用具有紧密联系的讨论的算数证明的结构的理论

Logic Syntax 逻辑语法

• Logical syntax Relations between expressions in a language of logic can be characterized in terms of the grammatical structure of the expressions themselves. 逻辑式之间的逻辑语法关系可以通过逻辑式之间的语法结构确定
• The most important relation ((syntactical) logical consequence relation) is the relation of derivability or deducibility, i.e., an expression can be (syntactically) drawn from others.最重要的语法的上的关系是推导关系
• A formula, C, is derivable from a set of formulas, P, if there is a proof of C from P where a proof is a structure of formulas that meets specific conditions. Here “proof”, and hence “derivability”, must be understood as relative to a particular deductive system or calculus that determines those conditions.

Syntactic (Proof-theoretical) deduction theorem 语法推导论

Let $(F(L),\vdash_L)$be a formal logic system.For any $P \subseteq F(L)$and any $A,B \in F(L)$,

$$P\cup \{A\} \vdash_L B \ \ iff\ P\vdash_L (A\rightarrow B)$$
$${A} \vdash_L B \ \ iff P\vdash_L (A\rightarrow B )$$

Syntactic (Proof-theoretical) deduction theorem for finite consequences 语法推导推广到有限多个结果

Let $(F(L),\vdash_L)$be a formal logic system.For any$P \subseteq F(L)$ and any $A_1,\cdots A_{n-1},A_n,B \in F(L)$

$$P \cup \{A_1,\cdots A_{n-1},A_n\} \vdash_L B \ \ iff \ P\models ( A_1 \rightarrow ( \cdots \rightarrow ( A_n \rightarrow B ) ) )$$
$$\{A_1,\cdots A_{n-1},A_n\} \vdash_L B\ \ iff ( A_1 \rightarrow ( \cdots \rightarrow ( A_n \rightarrow B ) ) )$$

Soundness 稳定性

语法上真则语义上真

Completeness 完整性

语义啥上真则语法上真