lecture 1：What is AI

嗨，第一课，什么是AI，顺便提一下生成测试法的概念，以及AI的历史。

What is AI?

AI is ablout algorithms enabled by constraints exposed by representations that support models targeted at thinking,perception,and action,with loops that tied all of those together.(针对思维、感知和行动的有机结合模型表示所呈现出来的约束条件下的算法或者说程序，就是AI)

generate and test（生成测试法）

以下有关generate and test的内容来自：
GENERATE-AND-TEST SEARCH
December 14th, 2009 | Author: Robin(点击进入源网站)

GENERATE-AND-TEST ALGORITHM
Generate-and-test search algorithm is a very simple algorithm that guarantees to find a solution if done systematically and there exists a solution.

ALGORITHM: GENERATE-AND-TEST
1.Generate a possible solution.
2.Test to see if this is the expected solution.
3.If the solution has been found quit else go to step 1.

Potential solutions that need to be generated vary depending on the kinds of problems. For some problems the possible solutions may be particular points in the problem space and for some problems, paths from the start state.

Figure: Generate And Test

Generate-and-test, like depth-first search, requires that complete solutions be generated for testing. In its most systematic form, it is only an exhaustive search of the problem space. Solutions can also be generated randomly but solution is not guaranteed. This approach is what is known as British Museum algorithm: finding an object in the British Museum by wandering randomly.

SYSTEMATIC GENERATE-AND-TEST
While generating complete solutions and generating random solutions are the two extremes there exists another approach that lies in between. The approach is that the search process proceeds systematically but some paths that unlikely to lead the solution are not considered. This evaluation is performed by a heuristic function.

Depth-first search tree with backtracking can be used to implement systematic generate-and-test procedure. As per this procedure, if some intermediate states are likely to appear often in the tree, it would be better to modify that procedure to traverse a graph rather than a tree.

GENERATE-AND-TEST AND PLANNING
Exhaustive generate-and-test is very useful for simple problems. But for complex problems even heuristic generate-and-test is not very effective technique. But this may be made effective by combining with other techniques in such a way that the space in which to search is restricted. An AI program DENDRAL, for example, uses plan-Generate-and-test technique. First, the planning process uses constraint-satisfaction techniques and creates lists of recommended and contraindicated substructures. Then the generate-and-test procedure uses the lists generated and required to explore only a limited set of structures. Constrained in this way, generate-and-test proved highly effective. A major weakness of planning is that it often produces inaccurate solutions as there is no feedback from the world. But if it is used to produce only pieces of solutions then lack of detailed accuracy becomes unimportant.

Tips：generate and test is a simple concept.
There is a difference between simple and trivial.
Simple can be powerful,but trivial makes it sound like it’s not only simple but of little worth.

HISTORY OF AI

1.speculation
2.dawn age
integration积分程序
Eliza匹配
analogy推理 vision符号推理symbolic reasoning
感知系统Perceptual Apparatus分辨图形性质
learning
expert system 基于规则的专家系统
3.business age
4.Bulldozer age：Deep Blue，process data like a bulldozer processes gravel
5.The right way:imagination.
想象你提着一桶水在街上跑，脚会湿等等。然而并没有人告诉过我们这个结果，我们也没有见过这种事情的发生，但是我们通过模拟得到了事件的结果，如果不能理解这个的话，我们将永远不能理解人工智能。