lveDevice.h lveDevice.cpp

#pragma once

#include "lve_window.hpp"

// std lib headers
#include <string>
#include <vector>

namespace lve {

struct SwapChainSupportDetails {
  VkSurfaceCapabilitiesKHR capabilities;
  std::vector<VkSurfaceFormatKHR> formats;
  std::vector<VkPresentModeKHR> presentModes;
};

struct QueueFamilyIndices {
  uint32_t graphicsFamily;
  uint32_t presentFamily;
  bool graphicsFamilyHasValue = false;
  bool presentFamilyHasValue = false;
  bool isComplete() { return graphicsFamilyHasValue && presentFamilyHasValue; }
};

class LveDevice {
 public:
#ifdef NDEBUG
  const bool enableValidationLayers = false;
#else
  const bool enableValidationLayers = true;
#endif

  LveDevice(LveWindow &window);
  ~LveDevice();

  // Not copyable or movable
  LveDevice(const LveDevice &) = delete;
  LveDevice &operator=(const LveDevice &) = delete;
  LveDevice(LveDevice &&) = delete;
  LveDevice &operator=(LveDevice &&) = delete;

  VkCommandPool getCommandPool() { return commandPool; }
  VkDevice device() { return device_; }
  VkSurfaceKHR surface() { return surface_; }
  VkQueue graphicsQueue() { return graphicsQueue_; }
  VkQueue presentQueue() { return presentQueue_; }

  SwapChainSupportDetails getSwapChainSupport() { return querySwapChainSupport(physicalDevice); }
  uint32_t findMemoryType(uint32_t typeFilter, VkMemoryPropertyFlags properties);
  QueueFamilyIndices findPhysicalQueueFamilies() { return findQueueFamilies(physicalDevice); }
  VkFormat findSupportedFormat(
      const std::vector<VkFormat> &candidates, VkImageTiling tiling, VkFormatFeatureFlags features);

  // Buffer Helper Functions
  void createBuffer(
      VkDeviceSize size,
      VkBufferUsageFlags usage,
      VkMemoryPropertyFlags properties,
      VkBuffer &buffer,
      VkDeviceMemory &bufferMemory);
  VkCommandBuffer beginSingleTimeCommands();
  void endSingleTimeCommands(VkCommandBuffer commandBuffer);
  void copyBuffer(VkBuffer srcBuffer, VkBuffer dstBuffer, VkDeviceSize size);
  void copyBufferToImage(
      VkBuffer buffer, VkImage image, uint32_t width, uint32_t height, uint32_t layerCount);

  void createImageWithInfo(
      const VkImageCreateInfo &imageInfo,
      VkMemoryPropertyFlags properties,
      VkImage &image,
      VkDeviceMemory &imageMemory);

  VkPhysicalDeviceProperties properties;

 private:
  void createInstance();
  void setupDebugMessenger();
  void createSurface();
  void pickPhysicalDevice();
  void createLogicalDevice();
  void createCommandPool();

  // helper functions
  bool isDeviceSuitable(VkPhysicalDevice device);
  std::vector<const char *> getRequiredExtensions();
  bool checkValidationLayerSupport();
  QueueFamilyIndices findQueueFamilies(VkPhysicalDevice device);
  void populateDebugMessengerCreateInfo(VkDebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT &createInfo);
  void hasGflwRequiredInstanceExtensions();
  bool checkDeviceExtensionSupport(VkPhysicalDevice device);
  SwapChainSupportDetails querySwapChainSupport(VkPhysicalDevice device);

  VkInstance instance;
  VkDebugUtilsMessengerEXT debugMessenger;
  VkPhysicalDevice physicalDevice = VK_NULL_HANDLE;
  LveWindow &window;
  VkCommandPool commandPool;

  VkDevice device_;
  VkSurfaceKHR surface_;
  VkQueue graphicsQueue_;
  VkQueue presentQueue_;

  const std::vector<const char *> validationLayers = {"VK_LAYER_KHRONOS_validation"};
  const std::vector<const char *> deviceExtensions = {VK_KHR_SWAPCHAIN_EXTENSION_NAME};
};

}  // namespace lve

cpp

#include "lve_device.hpp"

// std headers
#include <cstring>
#include <iostream>
#include <set>
#include <unordered_set>

namespace lve {

// local callback functions
static VKAPI_ATTR VkBool32 VKAPI_CALL debugCallback(
    VkDebugUtilsMessageSeverityFlagBitsEXT messageSeverity,
    VkDebugUtilsMessageTypeFlagsEXT messageType,
    const VkDebugUtilsMessengerCallbackDataEXT *pCallbackData,
    void *pUserData) {
  std::cerr << "validation layer: " << pCallbackData->pMessage << std::endl;

  return VK_FALSE;
}

VkResult CreateDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(
    VkInstance instance,
    const VkDebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT *pCreateInfo,
    const VkAllocationCallbacks *pAllocator,
    VkDebugUtilsMessengerEXT *pDebugMessenger) {
  auto func = (PFN_vkCreateDebugUtilsMessengerEXT)vkGetInstanceProcAddr(
      instance,
      "vkCreateDebugUtilsMessengerEXT");
  if (func != nullptr) {
    return func(instance, pCreateInfo, pAllocator, pDebugMessenger);
  } else {
    return VK_ERROR_EXTENSION_NOT_PRESENT;
  }
}

void DestroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(
    VkInstance instance,
    VkDebugUtilsMessengerEXT debugMessenger,
    const VkAllocationCallbacks *pAllocator) {
  auto func = (PFN_vkDestroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT)vkGetInstanceProcAddr(
      instance,
      "vkDestroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT");
  if (func != nullptr) {
    func(instance, debugMessenger, pAllocator);
  }
}

// class member functions
LveDevice::LveDevice(LveWindow &window) : window{window} {
  createInstance();
  setupDebugMessenger();
  createSurface();
  pickPhysicalDevice();
  createLogicalDevice();
  createCommandPool();
}

LveDevice::~LveDevice() {
  vkDestroyCommandPool(device_, commandPool, nullptr);
  vkDestroyDevice(device_, nullptr);

  if (enableValidationLayers) {
    DestroyDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(instance, debugMessenger, nullptr);
  }

  vkDestroySurfaceKHR(instance, surface_, nullptr);
  vkDestroyInstance(instance, nullptr);
}

void LveDevice::createInstance() {
  if (enableValidationLayers && !checkValidationLayerSupport()) {
    throw std::runtime_error("validation layers requested, but not available!");
  }

  VkApplicationInfo appInfo = {};
  appInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_APPLICATION_INFO;
  appInfo.pApplicationName = "LittleVulkanEngine App";
  appInfo.applicationVersion = VK_MAKE_VERSION(1, 0, 0);
  appInfo.pEngineName = "No Engine";
  appInfo.engineVersion = VK_MAKE_VERSION(1, 0, 0);
  appInfo.apiVersion = VK_API_VERSION_1_0;

  VkInstanceCreateInfo createInfo = {};
  createInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_INSTANCE_CREATE_INFO;
  createInfo.pApplicationInfo = &appInfo;

  auto extensions = getRequiredExtensions();
  createInfo.enabledExtensionCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(extensions.size());
  createInfo.ppEnabledExtensionNames = extensions.data();

  VkDebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT debugCreateInfo;
  if (enableValidationLayers) {
    createInfo.enabledLayerCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(validationLayers.size());
    createInfo.ppEnabledLayerNames = validationLayers.data();

    populateDebugMessengerCreateInfo(debugCreateInfo);
    createInfo.pNext = (VkDebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT *)&debugCreateInfo;
  } else {
    createInfo.enabledLayerCount = 0;
    createInfo.pNext = nullptr;
  }

  if (vkCreateInstance(&createInfo, nullptr, &instance) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create instance!");
  }

  hasGflwRequiredInstanceExtensions();
}

void LveDevice::pickPhysicalDevice() {
  uint32_t deviceCount = 0;
  vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices(instance, &deviceCount, nullptr);
  if (deviceCount == 0) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to find GPUs with Vulkan support!");
  }
  std::cout << "Device count: " << deviceCount << std::endl;
  std::vector<VkPhysicalDevice> devices(deviceCount);
  vkEnumeratePhysicalDevices(instance, &deviceCount, devices.data());

  for (const auto &device : devices) {
    if (isDeviceSuitable(device)) {
      physicalDevice = device;
      break;
    }
  }

  if (physicalDevice == VK_NULL_HANDLE) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to find a suitable GPU!");
  }

  vkGetPhysicalDeviceProperties(physicalDevice, &properties);
  std::cout << "physical device: " << properties.deviceName << std::endl;
}

void LveDevice::createLogicalDevice() {
  QueueFamilyIndices indices = findQueueFamilies(physicalDevice);

  std::vector<VkDeviceQueueCreateInfo> queueCreateInfos;
  std::set<uint32_t> uniqueQueueFamilies = {indices.graphicsFamily, indices.presentFamily};

  float queuePriority = 1.0f;
  for (uint32_t queueFamily : uniqueQueueFamilies) {
    VkDeviceQueueCreateInfo queueCreateInfo = {};
    queueCreateInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DEVICE_QUEUE_CREATE_INFO;
    queueCreateInfo.queueFamilyIndex = queueFamily;
    queueCreateInfo.queueCount = 1;
    queueCreateInfo.pQueuePriorities = &queuePriority;
    queueCreateInfos.push_back(queueCreateInfo);
  }

  VkPhysicalDeviceFeatures deviceFeatures = {};
  deviceFeatures.samplerAnisotropy = VK_TRUE;

  VkDeviceCreateInfo createInfo = {};
  createInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DEVICE_CREATE_INFO;

  createInfo.queueCreateInfoCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(queueCreateInfos.size());
  createInfo.pQueueCreateInfos = queueCreateInfos.data();

  createInfo.pEnabledFeatures = &deviceFeatures;
  createInfo.enabledExtensionCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(deviceExtensions.size());
  createInfo.ppEnabledExtensionNames = deviceExtensions.data();

  // might not really be necessary anymore because device specific validation layers
  // have been deprecated
  if (enableValidationLayers) {
    createInfo.enabledLayerCount = static_cast<uint32_t>(validationLayers.size());
    createInfo.ppEnabledLayerNames = validationLayers.data();
  } else {
    createInfo.enabledLayerCount = 0;
  }

  if (vkCreateDevice(physicalDevice, &createInfo, nullptr, &device_) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create logical device!");
  }

  vkGetDeviceQueue(device_, indices.graphicsFamily, 0, &graphicsQueue_);
  vkGetDeviceQueue(device_, indices.presentFamily, 0, &presentQueue_);
}

void LveDevice::createCommandPool() {
  QueueFamilyIndices queueFamilyIndices = findPhysicalQueueFamilies();

  VkCommandPoolCreateInfo poolInfo = {};
  poolInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_POOL_CREATE_INFO;
  poolInfo.queueFamilyIndex = queueFamilyIndices.graphicsFamily;
  poolInfo.flags =
      VK_COMMAND_POOL_CREATE_TRANSIENT_BIT | VK_COMMAND_POOL_CREATE_RESET_COMMAND_BUFFER_BIT;

  if (vkCreateCommandPool(device_, &poolInfo, nullptr, &commandPool) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create command pool!");
  }
}

void LveDevice::createSurface() { window.createWindowSurface(instance, &surface_); }

bool LveDevice::isDeviceSuitable(VkPhysicalDevice device) {
  QueueFamilyIndices indices = findQueueFamilies(device);

  bool extensionsSupported = checkDeviceExtensionSupport(device);

  bool swapChainAdequate = false;
  if (extensionsSupported) {
    SwapChainSupportDetails swapChainSupport = querySwapChainSupport(device);
    swapChainAdequate = !swapChainSupport.formats.empty() && !swapChainSupport.presentModes.empty();
  }

  VkPhysicalDeviceFeatures supportedFeatures;
  vkGetPhysicalDeviceFeatures(device, &supportedFeatures);

  return indices.isComplete() && extensionsSupported && swapChainAdequate &&
         supportedFeatures.samplerAnisotropy;
}

void LveDevice::populateDebugMessengerCreateInfo(VkDebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT &createInfo) {
  createInfo = {};
  createInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_DEBUG_UTILS_MESSENGER_CREATE_INFO_EXT;
  createInfo.messageSeverity = VK_DEBUG_UTILS_MESSAGE_SEVERITY_WARNING_BIT_EXT |
                               VK_DEBUG_UTILS_MESSAGE_SEVERITY_ERROR_BIT_EXT;
  createInfo.messageType = VK_DEBUG_UTILS_MESSAGE_TYPE_GENERAL_BIT_EXT |
                           VK_DEBUG_UTILS_MESSAGE_TYPE_VALIDATION_BIT_EXT |
                           VK_DEBUG_UTILS_MESSAGE_TYPE_PERFORMANCE_BIT_EXT;
  createInfo.pfnUserCallback = debugCallback;
  createInfo.pUserData = nullptr;  // Optional
}

void LveDevice::setupDebugMessenger() {
  if (!enableValidationLayers) return;
  VkDebugUtilsMessengerCreateInfoEXT createInfo;
  populateDebugMessengerCreateInfo(createInfo);
  if (CreateDebugUtilsMessengerEXT(instance, &createInfo, nullptr, &debugMessenger) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to set up debug messenger!");
  }
}

bool LveDevice::checkValidationLayerSupport() {
  uint32_t layerCount;
  vkEnumerateInstanceLayerProperties(&layerCount, nullptr);

  std::vector<VkLayerProperties> availableLayers(layerCount);
  vkEnumerateInstanceLayerProperties(&layerCount, availableLayers.data());

  for (const char *layerName : validationLayers) {
    bool layerFound = false;

    for (const auto &layerProperties : availableLayers) {
      if (strcmp(layerName, layerProperties.layerName) == 0) {
        layerFound = true;
        break;
      }
    }

    if (!layerFound) {
      return false;
    }
  }

  return true;
}

std::vector<const char *> LveDevice::getRequiredExtensions() {
  uint32_t glfwExtensionCount = 0;
  const char **glfwExtensions;
  glfwExtensions = glfwGetRequiredInstanceExtensions(&glfwExtensionCount);

  std::vector<const char *> extensions(glfwExtensions, glfwExtensions + glfwExtensionCount);

  if (enableValidationLayers) {
    extensions.push_back(VK_EXT_DEBUG_UTILS_EXTENSION_NAME);
  }

  return extensions;
}

void LveDevice::hasGflwRequiredInstanceExtensions() {
  uint32_t extensionCount = 0;
  vkEnumerateInstanceExtensionProperties(nullptr, &extensionCount, nullptr);
  std::vector<VkExtensionProperties> extensions(extensionCount);
  vkEnumerateInstanceExtensionProperties(nullptr, &extensionCount, extensions.data());

  std::cout << "available extensions:" << std::endl;
  std::unordered_set<std::string> available;
  for (const auto &extension : extensions) {
    std::cout << "\t" << extension.extensionName << std::endl;
    available.insert(extension.extensionName);
  }

  std::cout << "required extensions:" << std::endl;
  auto requiredExtensions = getRequiredExtensions();
  for (const auto &required : requiredExtensions) {
    std::cout << "\t" << required << std::endl;
    if (available.find(required) == available.end()) {
      throw std::runtime_error("Missing required glfw extension");
    }
  }
}

bool LveDevice::checkDeviceExtensionSupport(VkPhysicalDevice device) {
  uint32_t extensionCount;
  vkEnumerateDeviceExtensionProperties(device, nullptr, &extensionCount, nullptr);

  std::vector<VkExtensionProperties> availableExtensions(extensionCount);
  vkEnumerateDeviceExtensionProperties(
      device,
      nullptr,
      &extensionCount,
      availableExtensions.data());

  std::set<std::string> requiredExtensions(deviceExtensions.begin(), deviceExtensions.end());

  for (const auto &extension : availableExtensions) {
    requiredExtensions.erase(extension.extensionName);
  }

  return requiredExtensions.empty();
}

QueueFamilyIndices LveDevice::findQueueFamilies(VkPhysicalDevice device) {
  QueueFamilyIndices indices;

  uint32_t queueFamilyCount = 0;
  vkGetPhysicalDeviceQueueFamilyProperties(device, &queueFamilyCount, nullptr);

  std::vector<VkQueueFamilyProperties> queueFamilies(queueFamilyCount);
  vkGetPhysicalDeviceQueueFamilyProperties(device, &queueFamilyCount, queueFamilies.data());

  int i = 0;
  for (const auto &queueFamily : queueFamilies) {
    if (queueFamily.queueCount > 0 && queueFamily.queueFlags & VK_QUEUE_GRAPHICS_BIT) {
      indices.graphicsFamily = i;
      indices.graphicsFamilyHasValue = true;
    }
    VkBool32 presentSupport = false;
    vkGetPhysicalDeviceSurfaceSupportKHR(device, i, surface_, &presentSupport);
    if (queueFamily.queueCount > 0 && presentSupport) {
      indices.presentFamily = i;
      indices.presentFamilyHasValue = true;
    }
    if (indices.isComplete()) {
      break;
    }

    i++;
  }

  return indices;
}

SwapChainSupportDetails LveDevice::querySwapChainSupport(VkPhysicalDevice device) {
  SwapChainSupportDetails details;
  vkGetPhysicalDeviceSurfaceCapabilitiesKHR(device, surface_, &details.capabilities);

  uint32_t formatCount;
  vkGetPhysicalDeviceSurfaceFormatsKHR(device, surface_, &formatCount, nullptr);

  if (formatCount != 0) {
    details.formats.resize(formatCount);
    vkGetPhysicalDeviceSurfaceFormatsKHR(device, surface_, &formatCount, details.formats.data());
  }

  uint32_t presentModeCount;
  vkGetPhysicalDeviceSurfacePresentModesKHR(device, surface_, &presentModeCount, nullptr);

  if (presentModeCount != 0) {
    details.presentModes.resize(presentModeCount);
    vkGetPhysicalDeviceSurfacePresentModesKHR(
        device,
        surface_,
        &presentModeCount,
        details.presentModes.data());
  }
  return details;
}

VkFormat LveDevice::findSupportedFormat(
    const std::vector<VkFormat> &candidates, VkImageTiling tiling, VkFormatFeatureFlags features) {
  for (VkFormat format : candidates) {
    VkFormatProperties props;
    vkGetPhysicalDeviceFormatProperties(physicalDevice, format, &props);

    if (tiling == VK_IMAGE_TILING_LINEAR && (props.linearTilingFeatures & features) == features) {
      return format;
    } else if (
        tiling == VK_IMAGE_TILING_OPTIMAL && (props.optimalTilingFeatures & features) == features) {
      return format;
    }
  }
  throw std::runtime_error("failed to find supported format!");
}

uint32_t LveDevice::findMemoryType(uint32_t typeFilter, VkMemoryPropertyFlags properties) {
  VkPhysicalDeviceMemoryProperties memProperties;
  vkGetPhysicalDeviceMemoryProperties(physicalDevice, &memProperties);
  for (uint32_t i = 0; i < memProperties.memoryTypeCount; i++) {
    if ((typeFilter & (1 << i)) &&
        (memProperties.memoryTypes[i].propertyFlags & properties) == properties) {
      return i;
    }
  }

  throw std::runtime_error("failed to find suitable memory type!");
}

void LveDevice::createBuffer(
    VkDeviceSize size,
    VkBufferUsageFlags usage,
    VkMemoryPropertyFlags properties,
    VkBuffer &buffer,
    VkDeviceMemory &bufferMemory) {
  VkBufferCreateInfo bufferInfo{};
  bufferInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_BUFFER_CREATE_INFO;
  bufferInfo.size = size;
  bufferInfo.usage = usage;
  bufferInfo.sharingMode = VK_SHARING_MODE_EXCLUSIVE;

  if (vkCreateBuffer(device_, &bufferInfo, nullptr, &buffer) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create vertex buffer!");
  }

  VkMemoryRequirements memRequirements;
  vkGetBufferMemoryRequirements(device_, buffer, &memRequirements);

  VkMemoryAllocateInfo allocInfo{};
  allocInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_MEMORY_ALLOCATE_INFO;
  allocInfo.allocationSize = memRequirements.size;
  allocInfo.memoryTypeIndex = findMemoryType(memRequirements.memoryTypeBits, properties);

  if (vkAllocateMemory(device_, &allocInfo, nullptr, &bufferMemory) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to allocate vertex buffer memory!");
  }

  vkBindBufferMemory(device_, buffer, bufferMemory, 0);
}

VkCommandBuffer LveDevice::beginSingleTimeCommands() {
  VkCommandBufferAllocateInfo allocInfo{};
  allocInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_ALLOCATE_INFO;
  allocInfo.level = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_LEVEL_PRIMARY;
  allocInfo.commandPool = commandPool;
  allocInfo.commandBufferCount = 1;

  VkCommandBuffer commandBuffer;
  vkAllocateCommandBuffers(device_, &allocInfo, &commandBuffer);

  VkCommandBufferBeginInfo beginInfo{};
  beginInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_COMMAND_BUFFER_BEGIN_INFO;
  beginInfo.flags = VK_COMMAND_BUFFER_USAGE_ONE_TIME_SUBMIT_BIT;

  vkBeginCommandBuffer(commandBuffer, &beginInfo);
  return commandBuffer;
}

void LveDevice::endSingleTimeCommands(VkCommandBuffer commandBuffer) {
  vkEndCommandBuffer(commandBuffer);

  VkSubmitInfo submitInfo{};
  submitInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_SUBMIT_INFO;
  submitInfo.commandBufferCount = 1;
  submitInfo.pCommandBuffers = &commandBuffer;

  vkQueueSubmit(graphicsQueue_, 1, &submitInfo, VK_NULL_HANDLE);
  vkQueueWaitIdle(graphicsQueue_);

  vkFreeCommandBuffers(device_, commandPool, 1, &commandBuffer);
}

void LveDevice::copyBuffer(VkBuffer srcBuffer, VkBuffer dstBuffer, VkDeviceSize size) {
  VkCommandBuffer commandBuffer = beginSingleTimeCommands();

  VkBufferCopy copyRegion{};
  copyRegion.srcOffset = 0;  // Optional
  copyRegion.dstOffset = 0;  // Optional
  copyRegion.size = size;
  vkCmdCopyBuffer(commandBuffer, srcBuffer, dstBuffer, 1, &copyRegion);

  endSingleTimeCommands(commandBuffer);
}

void LveDevice::copyBufferToImage(
    VkBuffer buffer, VkImage image, uint32_t width, uint32_t height, uint32_t layerCount) {
  VkCommandBuffer commandBuffer = beginSingleTimeCommands();

  VkBufferImageCopy region{};
  region.bufferOffset = 0;
  region.bufferRowLength = 0;
  region.bufferImageHeight = 0;

  region.imageSubresource.aspectMask = VK_IMAGE_ASPECT_COLOR_BIT;
  region.imageSubresource.mipLevel = 0;
  region.imageSubresource.baseArrayLayer = 0;
  region.imageSubresource.layerCount = layerCount;

  region.imageOffset = {0, 0, 0};
  region.imageExtent = {width, height, 1};

  vkCmdCopyBufferToImage(
      commandBuffer,
      buffer,
      image,
      VK_IMAGE_LAYOUT_TRANSFER_DST_OPTIMAL,
      1,
      &region);
  endSingleTimeCommands(commandBuffer);
}

void LveDevice::createImageWithInfo(
    const VkImageCreateInfo &imageInfo,
    VkMemoryPropertyFlags properties,
    VkImage &image,
    VkDeviceMemory &imageMemory) {
  if (vkCreateImage(device_, &imageInfo, nullptr, &image) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to create image!");
  }

  VkMemoryRequirements memRequirements;
  vkGetImageMemoryRequirements(device_, image, &memRequirements);

  VkMemoryAllocateInfo allocInfo{};
  allocInfo.sType = VK_STRUCTURE_TYPE_MEMORY_ALLOCATE_INFO;
  allocInfo.allocationSize = memRequirements.size;
  allocInfo.memoryTypeIndex = findMemoryType(memRequirements.memoryTypeBits, properties);

  if (vkAllocateMemory(device_, &allocInfo, nullptr, &imageMemory) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to allocate image memory!");
  }

  if (vkBindImageMemory(device_, image, imageMemory, 0) != VK_SUCCESS) {
    throw std::runtime_error("failed to bind image memory!");
  }
}

}  // namespace lve