微积分(1)
目录:
预备知识
三角恒等式
s i n 2 + c o s 2 = 1 sin^2 + cos^2 = 1 sin2+cos2=1
证明:
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在三角形中斜边为1,直边分别为sin(θ) 和 cos(θ)
由勾股定理得此公式
1 + t a n 2 = s e c 2 1 + tan^2 = sec^2 1+tan2=sec2
证明:
公式(1)等式两边同时除以cos
1 + c o t 2 = c s c 2 1 + cot^2 = csc^2 1+cot2=csc2
证明:
公式(1)等式两边同时除以sin
和角公式
c o s ( A + B ) = c o s A c o s B − s i n A s i n B s i n ( A + B ) = s i n A c o s B + c o s A s i n B cos(A+B) = cosAcosB-sinAsinB\\ sin(A+B)=sinAcosB+cosAsinB cos(A+B)=cosAcosB−sinAsinBsin(A+B)=sinAcosB+cosAsinB
Proof:
The figure shows
b = s i n ( β ) c o s ( α ) b=\frac{sin(β)}{cos(\alpha)} b=cos(α)sin(β)
a = s i n ( α ) × ( c o s ( β ) − b × s i n ( α ) ) a=sin(\alpha)\times(cos(\beta)-b\times sin(\alpha)) a=sin(α)×(cos(β)−b×sin(α))
s i n ( α + β ) = a + b sin(\alpha+\beta)=a+b sin(α+β)=a+b
Integrate the reletionship and get formula(4)
Proof:
The figure shows
b = s i n ( β ) c o s ( α ) b=\frac{sin(β)}{cos(\alpha)} b=cos(α)sin(β)
a = s i n ( α ) × ( c o s ( β ) − b × s i n ( α ) ) a=sin(\alpha)\times(cos(\beta)-b\times sin(\alpha)) a=sin(α)×(cos(β)−b×sin(α))
c o s ( α ) = a t a n ( α ) cos(\alpha)=\frac{a}{tan(\alpha)} cos(α)=tan(α)a
Integate the relationship and get formula(5)
余弦定理
c o s ( A ) = b 2 + c 2 − a 2 2 b c cos(A) = \frac{b^2+c^2-a^2}{2bc} cos(A)=2bcb2+c2−a2
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Proof:
a ⃗ 2 = ( b ⃗ − c ⃗ ) 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2 b c c o s ( A ) \vec{a}^2=(\vec{b}-\vec{c})^2\\\quad=b^2+c^2-2bccos(A) a2=(b−c)2=b2+c2−2bccos(A)
Integrate and get formula(6)
极限与连续
极限的定义
定义 极限的正式定义
f(x)定义在可能不包含 x 0 x_0 x0的开区间上, 当x趋于 x 0 x_0 x0时f(x)趋于极限L,记为
lim x → x 0 f ( x ) = L \lim_{x \to x_0}{f(x)}=L x→x0limf(x)=L
如果,对任何数 ϵ > 0 \epsilon>0 ϵ>0,存在相应的数 δ > 0 \delta>0 δ>0使得对所有满足 0 < ∣ x − x 0 ∣ < δ 0<|x-x_0|<\delta 0<∣x−x0∣<δ的x,有
∣ f ( x ) − L ∣ < ϵ |f(x)-L|<\epsilon ∣f(x)−L∣<ϵ
定义 右侧极限和左侧极限
设f(x)定义在(a,b)上, a<b,如果在区间(a,b)内趋于a时f(x)任意接近地趋近于L,f在a有右侧极限,记作
lim x → a + f ( x ) = L \lim_{x \to a^+}f(x)=L x→a+limf(x)=L
设f(x)定义在(c,a)上, c<a,如果在区间(c,a)内趋于a时f(x)任意接近地趋近于L,f在a有左侧极限,记作
lim x → a − f ( x ) = L \lim_{x \to a^-}f(x)=L x→a−limf(x)=L
定理 单侧极限和双侧极限的关系
当 x → c x \to c x→c时函数f(x)有极限当且仅当f的左侧极限和右侧极限存在且相等:
lim x → c = L ⇔ lim x → c − = L 且 lim x → c + = L \lim_{x \to c}=L \Leftrightarrow \lim_{x \to c-}=L 且\lim_{x \to c+}=L x→clim=L⇔x→c−lim=L且x→c+lim=L
定义 无穷极限
x趋于 x 0 x_0 x0时f(x)趋于无穷,记作
lim x → c = ∞ \lim_{x \to c}=\infty x→clim=∞
如果对于任何正实数B存在相应的 δ > 0 \delta>0 δ>0,使得对一起满足 0 < ∣ x − x 0 ∣ < δ 0<|x-x_0|<\delta 0<∣x−x0∣<δ的x,有f(x)>Bx趋于 x 0 x_0 x0时f(x)趋于负无穷,记作
lim x → c = − ∞ \lim_{x \to c}=-\infty x→clim=−∞
如果对于任何正实数B存在相应的 δ > 0 \delta>0 δ>0,使得对一起满足 0 < ∣ x − x 0 ∣ < δ 0<|x-x_0|<\delta 0<∣x−x0∣<δ的x,有f(x)>-B
定义 水平渐近线和垂直渐近线
直线 y = b y=b y=b是函数 y = f ( x ) y=f(x) y=f(x)图形的水平渐近线,如果有
lim x → ∞ f ( x ) = b 或 lim x → − ∞ f ( x ) = b \lim_{x \to \infty}f(x)=b或\lim_{x \to -\infty}f(x)=b x→∞limf(x)=b或x→−∞limf(x)=b
直线 x = a x=a x=a是函数 y = f ( x ) y=f(x) y=f(x)图形的水平渐近线,如果有
lim x → a + f ( x ) = ± ∞ 或 lim x → a − f ( x ) = ± ∞ \lim_{x \to a^+}f(x)=\pm\infty或\lim_{x \to a^-}f(x)=\pm\infty x→a+limf(x)=±∞或x→a−limf(x)=±∞
极限的性质
加减乘除
定理 极限法则
如果L,M,c,k为实数,且
lim x → x 0 f ( x ) = L \lim_{x \to x_0}f(x)=L limx→x0f(x)=L 和 lim x → x 0 g ( x ) = M \lim_{x \to x_0}g(x)=M limx→x0g(x)=M
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &\lim_{x \to c…
求极限
多项式
定理 使用代入法求多项式极限
如果 P ( x ) = a n x n + a n − 1 x n − 1 + . . . + a 0 P(x)=a_nx^n+a_{n-1}x^{n-1}+...+a_0 P(x)=anxn+an−1xn−1+...+a0,那么
lim x → c P ( x ) = P ( c ) \lim_{x \to c}P(x)=P(c) x→climP(x)=P(c)
有理函数
定理 代入法求有理函数的极限
如果P(x)和Q(x)都是多项式且Q©$\neq$0,那么
lim x → c P ( x ) Q ( x ) = P ( c ) Q ( c ) \lim_{x \to c}\frac{P(x)}{Q(x)}=\frac{P(c)}{Q(c)} x→climQ(x)P(x)=Q(c)P(c)
夹逼定理
定理 夹逼定理
如果在包含c的某个开区间中 x = c x=c x=c处除外的所有x,有 g ( x ) ≤ f ( x ) ≤ h ( x ) g(x) \leq f(x) \leq h(x) g(x)≤f(x)≤h(x). 又假设
lim x → c g ( x ) = lim x → c h ( x ) = L \lim_{x \to c}g(x)=\lim_{x \to c}h(x)=L x→climg(x)=x→climh(x)=L
那么
lim x → c f ( x ) = L \lim_{x \to c}f(x)=L x→climf(x)=L
三角函数
定理 sin的极限
lim θ → 0 s i n θ θ = 1 \lim_{\theta \to 0}\frac{sin \theta}{\theta}=1 θ→0limθsinθ=1
Proof:
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The figure shows
1
2
s
i
n
θ
<
1
2
θ
<
1
2
t
a
n
θ
\frac{1}{2}sin\theta < \frac{1}{2}\theta < \frac{1}{2}tan\theta
21sinθ<21θ<21tanθ
Sort the expression and get
1
>
s
i
n
θ
θ
>
c
o
s
θ
1>\frac{sin\theta}{\theta}>cos\theta
1>θsinθ>cosθ
Also because
lim
x
→
0
c
o
s
θ
=
1
\lim_{x \to 0}cos\theta=1
x→0limcosθ=1
Thus
lim
x
→
0
s
i
n
θ
θ
=
1
\lim_{x \to 0}{\frac{sin\theta}{\theta}}=1
x→0limθsinθ=1
定理 cos的极限
lim x → 0 1 − c o s ( x ) x = 0 \lim_{x \to 0}\frac{1-cos (x)}{x}=0 x→0limx1−cos(x)=0
Proof:
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \lim_{x \to 0}…
不定式
定理 L’Hopital法则
假定 f ( x 0 ) = g ( x 0 ) = 0 或 ± ∞ f(x_0)=g(x_0)=0或\pm\infty f(x0)=g(x0)=0或±∞
lim x → x 0 f ( x ) g ( x ) = lim x → x 0 f ′ ( x ) g ′ ( x ) \lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}=\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)} x→x0limg(x)f(x)=x→x0limg′(x)f′(x)
Proof:
Let
F
(
x
)
=
f
(
x
)
−
f
(
a
)
−
f
(
b
)
−
f
(
a
)
g
(
b
)
−
g
(
a
)
[
g
(
x
)
−
g
(
a
)
]
F(x)=f(x)-f(a)-\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{g(b)-g(a)}[g(x)-g(a)]
F(x)=f(x)−f(a)−g(b)−g(a)f(b)−f(a)[g(x)−g(a)]
That
F
(
a
)
=
F
(
b
)
=
0
F(a)=F(b)=0
F(a)=F(b)=0
According to Median Value Theorem,there is figure ‘c’ let
F
′
(
c
)
=
0
F'(c)=0
F′(c)=0
Which is
f
′
(
c
)
g
′
(
c
)
=
f
(
b
)
−
f
(
a
)
g
(
b
)
−
g
(
a
)
\frac{f'(c)}{g'(c)}=\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{g(b)-g(a)}
g′(c)f′(c)=g(b)−g(a)f(b)−f(a)
Then compelet the proof of Cauthy Median Value Theorem
Let x right of x 0 x_0 x0
Accourding to CMVT, there is c between x and
x
o
x_o
xo let
f
′
(
c
)
g
′
(
c
)
=
f
(
x
)
−
f
(
x
0
)
g
(
x
)
−
g
(
x
0
)
\frac{f'(c)}{g'(c)}=\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{g(x)-g(x_0)}
g′(c)f′(c)=g(x)−g(x0)f(x)−f(x0)
because
f
(
x
0
)
=
g
(
x
0
)
=
0
f(x_0)=g(x_0)=0
f(x0)=g(x0)=0
f
′
(
c
)
g
′
(
c
)
=
f
(
x
)
g
(
x
)
\frac{f'(c)}{g'(c)}=\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}
g′(c)f′(c)=g(x)f(x)
because
x
0
<
c
<
x
x_0<c<x
x0<c<x
x
0
→
x
⇒
c
→
x
x_0 \to x \Rightarrow c \to x
x0→x⇒c→x
Thus
lim
x
→
x
0
+
f
(
x
)
g
(
x
)
=
lim
x
→
x
0
+
f
′
(
x
)
g
′
(
x
)
\lim_{x \to x_0+}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}=\lim_{x \to x_0+}\frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)}
x→x0+limg(x)f(x)=x→x0+limg′(x)f′(x)
The same
lim
x
→
x
0
−
f
(
x
)
g
(
x
)
=
lim
x
→
x
0
−
f
′
(
x
)
g
′
(
x
)
\lim_{x \to x_0-}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}=\lim_{x \to x_0-}\frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)}
x→x0−limg(x)f(x)=x→x0−limg′(x)f′(x)
Thus
lim
x
→
x
0
f
(
x
)
g
(
x
)
=
lim
x
→
x
0
f
′
(
x
)
g
′
(
x
)
\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}=\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)}
x→x0limg(x)f(x)=x→x0limg′(x)f′(x)
then complete proof of the
0
0
\frac{0}{0}
00form of L’Hopital Theorem
Let
F
(
x
)
=
1
f
(
x
)
,
G
(
x
)
=
1
g
(
x
)
F(x)=\frac{1}{f(x)},G(x)=\frac{1}{g(x)}
F(x)=f(x)1,G(x)=g(x)1
That
lim
x
→
x
0
F
(
x
)
=
∞
,
lim
x
→
x
0
G
(
x
)
=
∞
\lim_{x \to x_0}F(x)=\infty,\lim_{x \to x_0}G(x)=\infty
x→x0limF(x)=∞,x→x0limG(x)=∞
Suppose
lim
x
→
x
0
F
(
x
)
G
(
x
)
=
lim
x
→
x
0
F
′
(
x
)
G
′
(
x
)
\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{F(x)}{G(x)}=\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{F'(x)}{G'(x)}
x→x0limG(x)F(x)=x→x0limG′(x)F′(x)
lim x → x 0 g ( x ) f ( x ) = lim x → x 0 − 1 f 2 ( x ) f ′ ( x ) − 1 g 2 ( x ) g ′ ( x ) = lim x → x 0 g 2 ( x ) f ′ ( x ) f 2 ( x ) g ′ ( x ) \lim_{x \to x_0}{\frac{g(x)}{f(x)}}=\lim_{x \to x_0}{\frac{-\frac{1}{f^2(x)}f'(x)}{-\frac{1}{g^2(x)}g'(x)}}=\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{g^2(x)f'(x)}{f^2(x)g'(x)} x→x0limf(x)g(x)=x→x0lim−g2(x)1g′(x)−f2(x)1f′(x)=x→x0limf2(x)g′(x)g2(x)f′(x)
lim x → x 0 g ( x ) f ( x ) = lim x → x 0 g ′ ( x ) f ′ ( x ) \lim_{x \to x_0}{\frac{g(x)}{f(x)}}=\lim_{x \to x_0}{\frac{g'(x)}{f'(x)}} x→x0limf(x)g(x)=x→x0limf′(x)g′(x)
Which is the 0 0 \frac{0}{0} 00form of L’hopital Theorem
Then we have proof the suppose, which is
lim
x
→
x
0
F
(
x
)
G
(
x
)
=
lim
x
→
x
0
F
′
(
x
)
G
′
(
x
)
\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{F(x)}{G(x)}=\lim_{x \to x_0}\frac{F'(x)}{G'(x)}
x→x0limG(x)F(x)=x→x0limG′(x)F′(x)
The
∞
∞
\frac{\infty}{\infty}
∞∞form of L’Hopital Theorem
连续性的定义
定义 在一点的连续性
内点: 函数f(x)在定义域的内点c处是连续的,如果
lim x → c f ( x ) = f ( x ) \lim_{x \to c}f(x)=f(x) x→climf(x)=f(x)
端点: 函数载器定义域的左端点a或右端点b是连续的,如果
lim x → a + f ( x ) = f ( a ) lim x → b − f ( x ) = f ( b ) \lim_{x \to a^+}f(x)=f(a)\quad\lim_{x \to b^-}f(x)=f(b) x→a+limf(x)=f(a)x→b−limf(x)=f(b)
连续性的性质
加减乘除
定理 连续函数的性质
如果函数f和g在x=c连续,下列函数在x=c连续
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &f + g \\ &f -…
连续函数的中值定理
定理 连续函数的中值定理
在闭区间[a,b]上连续的函数一定取到f(a)和f(b)之间的每一个值
连续性和可导性
定理 可导性蕴含着连续性
如果f在x=c有导数,那么f在x=c连续
导数
定义
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定义 导函数
函数f(x)关于变量x的导数是函数f’,它在x处的值为
f ′ ( x ) = lim h → 0 f ( x + h ) − f ( x ) h f'(x)=\lim_{h\to0}{\frac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}} f′(x)=h→0limhf(x+h)−f(x)
如果该极限存在
导数的性质
常数倍
d d x ( c u ) = c d d x \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(cu)=c\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x} dxd(cu)=cdxd
加
d d x ( u + v ) = d u d x + d v d x \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(u+v)=\frac{\mathrm{d}u}{\mathrm{d}x}+\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}x} dxd(u+v)=dxdu+dxdv
乘
d d x ( u v ) = u d v d x + v d u d x \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(uv)=u\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}x}+v\frac{\mathrm{d}u}{\mathrm{d}x} dxd(uv)=udxdv+vdxdu
Proof:
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{\mathrm{…
除
d d x ( u v ) = v d u d x − u d v d x v 2 \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(\frac{u}{v})=\frac{v\frac{\mathrm{d}u}{\mathrm{d}x}-u\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}x}}{v^2} dxd(vu)=v2vdxdu−udxdv
Proof:
Regard u v \frac{u}{v} vu as u × 1 v u \times \frac{1}{v} u×v1
According to the Product Rule of the Derivative
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{\mathrm{…
复合
d y d x = d y d u ⋅ d u d x \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x}=\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}u}\cdot\frac{\mathrm{d}u}{\mathrm{d}x} dxdy=dudy⋅dxdu
Proof:
d d x f ( g ( x ) ) = f ′ ( g ( x ) ) g ′ ( x ) \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}f(g(x))=f'(g(x))g'(x) dxdf(g(x))=f′(g(x))g′(x) is another form of d y d x = d y d u ⋅ d u d x \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x}=\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}u}\cdot\frac{\mathrm{d}u}{\mathrm{d}x} dxdy=dudy⋅dxdu
Let
h
(
x
)
=
f
(
g
(
x
)
)
h(x)=f(g(x))
h(x)=f(g(x))
Let
ϵ
=
g
(
x
+
Δ
x
)
−
g
(
x
)
\epsilon=g(x+\Delta x)-g(x)
ϵ=g(x+Δx)−g(x)
That
x
→
0
⇒
ϵ
→
0
x \to 0 \Rightarrow \epsilon \to 0
x→0⇒ϵ→0
Then
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ h'(x)&=\lim_{\…
求导数
常函数
d f d x = d d x ( c ) = 0 \frac{\mathrm{d}f}{\mathrm{d}x}=\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(c)=0 dxdf=dxd(c)=0
幂函数
d d x ( x n ) = n x n − 1 \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(x^n)=nx^{n-1} dxd(xn)=nxn−1
Proof:
d
d
x
(
x
n
)
=
d
d
x
e
ln
x
n
=
n
x
n
−
1
\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(x^n)=\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}\mathrm{e}^{\ln{x}\,n}=nx^{n-1}
dxd(xn)=dxdelnxn=nxn−1
自然对数
e = lim h → 0 + ( 1 + h ) 1 / h \mathrm{e}=\lim_{h \to 0^+}(1+h)^{1/h} e=h→0+lim(1+h)1/h
Proof:
let F ( x ) = ∫ 1 x 1 t ( d ) t F(x)=\int_{1}^{x}\frac{1}{t}\mathrm(d)t F(x)=∫1xt1(d)t
that
F
(
1
)
=
0
lim
x
→
∞
F
(
x
)
=
∞
d
d
x
F
(
x
)
=
1
x
F(1)=0\\ \lim_{x \to \infty}F(x)=\infty\\ \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}F(x)=\frac{1}{x}
F(1)=0x→∞limF(x)=∞dxdF(x)=x1
According to Intermediate Value Theorem
There is e \mathrm{}e e let F ( e ) = 1 F(e)=1 F(e)=1
let G ( x ) = F ( x a ) G(x)=F(x^a) G(x)=F(xa)
that
G
′
(
x
)
=
a
1
x
=
a
F
′
(
x
)
G
(
x
)
=
a
F
(
x
)
+
C
G'(x)=a\frac{1}{x}=aF'(x)\\ G(x)=aF(x)+C
G′(x)=ax1=aF′(x)G(x)=aF(x)+C
let
x
=
1
⇒
C
=
0
x=1 \Rightarrow C=0
x=1⇒C=0
a
F
(
x
)
=
F
(
x
a
)
aF(x)=F(x^a)
aF(x)=F(xa)
let
x
=
e
,
a
=
x
x=\mathrm{e},a=x
x=e,a=x
Thus
F
(
e
)
=
1
F(\mathrm{e})=1
F(e)=1
F
(
e
x
)
=
x
F
(
x
)
=
log
e
x
=
ln
(
x
)
d
d
x
l
n
(
x
)
=
1
x
d
d
x
(
e
x
)
=
e
x
F(\mathrm{e}^x)=x\\ F(x)=\log_{\mathrm{e}}x=\ln(x)\\ \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}ln(x)=\frac{1}{x}\\ \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(\mathrm{e}^x)=\mathrm{e}^x
F(ex)=xF(x)=logex=ln(x)dxdln(x)=x1dxd(ex)=ex
let
y
=
(
1
+
h
)
1
/
h
y=(1+h)^{1/h}
y=(1+h)1/h
According to the L’Hopital Theorem
lim
h
→
0
+
ln
(
y
)
=
lim
h
→
0
+
ln
(
1
+
h
)
h
=
1
\lim_{h \to 0^+}\ln(y)=\lim_{h \to 0^+}\frac{\ln(1+h)}{h}=1
h→0+limln(y)=h→0+limhln(1+h)=1
Thus
ln
(
e
)
=
1
\ln(\mathrm{e})=1
ln(e)=1
e
=
lim
h
→
0
+
(
1
+
h
)
1
/
h
\mathrm{e}=\lim_{h \to 0^+}(1+h)^{1/h}
e=h→0+lim(1+h)1/h
d d x log b ( x ) = 1 x ln ( b ) d d x ln ( x ) = 1 x \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}\log_{b}(x)=\frac{1}{x\ln(b)}\\ \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}\ln(x)=\frac{1}{x} dxdlogb(x)=xln(b)1dxdln(x)=x1
Proof:
According to the definition of derivative
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{\mathrm{…
Then
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{\mathrm{…
自然指数
d d x ( b x ) = b x ln ( b ) d d x ( e x ) = e x \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(b^x)=b^x\ln(b)\\ \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(\mathrm{e}^x)=\mathrm{e}^x dxd(bx)=bxln(b)dxd(ex)=ex
Proof:
$$
\begin{align}
y&=b^x\
\log_by&=x\
\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}log_by&=1\
\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x}\frac{1}{\ln(b)y}&=1\
\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(bx)&=bx\ln(b)
\end{align}
T
h
e
n
Then
Then
\begin{align}
\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}(\mathrm{e}x)&=ex\ln(\mathrm{e})\
&=\mathrm{e}^x
\end{align}
$$
三角函数
d d x s i n ( x ) = c o s ( x ) \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}sin(x)=cos(x) dxdsin(x)=cos(x)
Proof:
According to the definition of the derivative
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{\mathrm{…
d d x c o s ( x ) = − s i n ( x ) \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}x}cos(x)=-sin(x) dxdcos(x)=−sin(x)
Proof:
According to the definition of the derivative
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{\mathrm{…
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &\frac{\mathrm…
反三角函数
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &\frac{\mathrm…
Proof:
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ y&=sin^{-1}(x)…
As the same
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &\frac{\mathrm…
双曲函数
定义 双曲函数
cosh x = e x + e − x 2 sinh x = e x − e − x 2 tanh x = sinh x cosh x coth x = cosh x sinh x sech x = 1 cosh x csch x = 1 sin x \begin{aligned} &\cosh x=\frac{e^{x}+e^{-x}}{2}\\ &\sinh x=\frac{e^{x}-e^{-x}}{2}\\ &\tanh x=\frac{\sinh x}{\cosh x}\\ &\operatorname{coth} x=\frac{\cosh x}{\sinh x}\\ &\operatorname{sech} x=\frac{1}{\cosh x}\\ &\operatorname{csch} x=\frac{1}{\sin x}\\ \end{aligned} coshx=2ex+e−xsinhx=2ex−e−xtanhx=coshxsinhxcothx=sinhxcoshxsechx=coshx1cschx=sinx1
性质
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &\sinh 2x =\si…
导数
d d x sinh x = cosh x d d x cosh x = sinh x d d x tanh x = sech 2 x d d x coth x = − csch 2 x d d x sech x = − sech x tan x d d x csch x = − csch x coth x \frac{d}{d x} \sinh x=\operatorname{cosh} x \\ \frac{d}{d x} \cosh x=\sinh x \\ \frac{d}{d x} \operatorname{tanh} x=\operatorname{sech}^{2} x \\ \frac{d}{d x} \operatorname{coth} x=-\operatorname{csch}^{2} x \\ \frac{d}{d x} \operatorname{sech} x=-\operatorname{sech} x \tan x \\ \frac{d}{d x} \operatorname{csch} x=-\operatorname{csch} x \operatorname{coth} x dxdsinhx=coshxdxdcoshx=sinhxdxdtanhx=sech2xdxdcothx=−csch2xdxdsechx=−sechxtanxdxdcschx=−cschxcothxd d x sinh − 1 x = 1 1 + x 2 d d x cosh − 1 x = 1 x 2 − 1 , x > 1 d a x tanh − 1 x = 1 1 − x 2 , ∣ x ∣ < 1 d d x coth − 1 x = 1 1 − x 2 , ∣ x ∣ > 1 d d x sech − 1 x = − 1 x 1 − x 2 , 0 < x < 1 d d x csch − 1 x = − − 1 ∣ x ∣ 1 + x 2 , x ≠ 0 \begin{aligned} \frac{d}{d x} \sinh ^{-1} x &=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+x^{2}}} \\ \frac{d}{d x} \cosh ^{-1} x &=\frac{1}{\sqrt{x^{2}-1}},x>1 \\ \frac{d}{a x} \tanh ^{-1} x &=\frac{1}{1-x^{2}},|x|<1 \\ \frac{d}{d x} \coth^{-1} x &=\frac{1}{1-x^{2}},|x|>1 \\ \frac{d}{d x} \operatorname{sech} ^{-1} x &=-\frac{1}{x \sqrt{1-x^{2}}},0<x<1 \\ \frac{d}{d x} \operatorname{csch}^{-1} x &=-\frac{-1}{|x|\sqrt{1+x^{2}}},x\ne0 \end{aligned} dxdsinh−1xdxdcosh−1xaxdtanh−1xdxdcoth−1xdxdsech−1xdxdcsch−1x=1+x21=x2−11,x>1=1−x21,∣x∣<1=1−x21,∣x∣>1=−x1−x21,0<x<1=−∣x∣1+x2−1,x=0
隐函数
解题 隐函数求导
- 处理方程 y=f(x) 方程两边对x求导数
- 并项 d y d x \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x} dxdy到一边
- 提出因子 d y d x \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x} dxdy
- 解 d y d x \frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x} dxdy
相关变化率
定义 相关变化率
如果Q为某个量,那么Q的变化率为 d Q d t \frac{\mathrm{d}Q}{\mathrm{d}t} dtdQ
解题 隐函数求导
- 对涉及变化率的问题进行建模
- 变量对 t t t进行求导, d Q d t \frac{\mathrm{d}Q}{\mathrm{d}t} dtdQ使用已知条件v(变化率)进行替换
- 对方程进行求解变量之间的相关变化率
导数的应用
物理中的应用
速度 v = d s d t v=\frac{\mathrm{d}s}{\mathrm{d}t} v=dtds
加速度 a = d v d t a=\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}t} a=dtdv
急推 z = d a d t z=\frac{\mathrm{d}a}{\mathrm{d}t} z=dtda
函数的极值
函数的极值
如果函数 f f f在定义域 c c c点取到局部最小值或局部最大值,那么
f ′ ( c ) = 0 或 f ′ ( c ) 不 存 在 f'(c)=0 或 f'(c)不存在 f′(c)=0或f′(c)不存在
中值定理
罗尔定理
假设函数 f f f在闭区间 [ a , b ] [a,b] [a,b]内连续,在开区间 ( a , b ) (a,b) (a,b)可导,如果 f ( a ) = f ( b ) f(a)=f(b) f(a)=f(b),那么在开区间 ( a , b ) (a,b) (a,b)内至少存在一点 c c c,使得 f ′ ( c ) = 0 f'(c)=0 f′(c)=0.
中值定理
假设函数 f f f在闭区间 [ a , b ] [a,b] [a,b]内连续,在开区间 ( a , b ) (a,b) (a,b)可导,如果 f ( a ) = f ( b ) f(a)=f(b) f(a)=f(b),那么在开区间 ( a , b ) (a,b) (a,b)内至少存在一点 c c c,使得
f ′ ( c ) = f ( b ) − f ( a ) b − a f'(c)=\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a} f′(c)=b−af(b)−f(a)
Proof:
let g ( x ) = f ( x ) − f ( b ) − f ( a ) b − a ( x − a ) g(x)=f(x)-\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}(x-a) g(x)=f(x)−b−af(b)−f(a)(x−a)
that
g
(
a
)
=
g
(
b
)
=
f
(
a
)
g(a)=g(b)=f(a)
g(a)=g(b)=f(a)
According to Rolle Theorem
There is c let
g
′
(
x
)
=
0
g'(x)=0
g′(x)=0 which is
g
′
(
x
)
=
f
′
(
x
)
−
f
(
b
)
−
f
(
a
)
b
−
a
f
′
(
c
)
=
f
(
b
)
−
f
(
a
)
b
−
a
g'(x)=f'(x)-\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}\\ f'(c)=\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}
g′(x)=f′(x)−b−af(b)−f(a)f′(c)=b−af(b)−f(a)
最优化
解决最优化问题
- 分析问题,数学建模
- 求导使用函数极值解决最优化问题
线性化
使用线性化进行估值
f ( a + Δ x ) ≈ f ( a ) + f ′ ( a ) Δ x f(a+\Delta x) \approx f(a)+f'(a)\Delta x f(a+Δx)≈f(a)+f′(a)Δx
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Newton法
Newton法
a a a为 f ( x ) = 0 f(x)=0 f(x)=0的近似解
b = a − f ( a ) f ′ ( a ) b=a-\frac{f(a)}{f'(a)} b=a−f′(a)f(a)
b b b为更优解
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积分
定义
定义 定积分作为黎曼和的极限
设f时定义在区间[a,b]的一个函数, 对于[a,b]的任意划分P,设 c k c_k ck是在子区间 [ x k − 1 , x k ] [x_{k-1},x_k] [xk−1,xk]上任意选取的数.
如果存在一个数I,使得不论划分P怎样和 c k c_k ck如何选取,都有
lim ∣ ∣ P ∣ ∣ → 0 ∑ k = 1 n f ( c k ) Δ x k = I \lim_{||P|| \to 0}\sum_{k=1}^{n}f(c_k)\Delta x_k = I ∣∣P∣∣→0limk=1∑nf(ck)Δxk=I
则称f在[a,b]上是可积的,而I称为f在区间[a,b]上的定积分
I = ∫ a b f ( x ) d x I=\int_a^bf(x)\mathrm{d}x I=∫abf(x)dx
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性质
定积分性质
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &\int_a^bf(x)\…
微积分基本定理
微积分第一基本定理(不定积分为反导数)
d d x ∫ a x f ( t ) d t = f ( x ) \frac{d}{d x}\int_a^xf(t)\mathrm{d}t=f(x) dxd∫axf(t)dt=f(x)
Proof:
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{d}{d x}\…
微积分第二基本定理
∫ a b f ( x ) d x = F ( b ) − F ( a ) \int_a^bf(x)\mathrm{d}x=F(b)-F(a) ∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
Proof:
let
F
(
x
)
=
∫
a
x
f
(
t
)
d
t
F(x)=\int_a^xf(t)\mathrm{d}t
F(x)=∫axf(t)dt
F
(
a
)
=
0
F
(
b
)
=
∫
a
b
f
(
t
)
d
t
F(a)=0\\ F(b)=\int_a^bf(t)\mathrm{d}t
F(a)=0F(b)=∫abf(t)dt
let
G
(
x
)
=
F
(
x
)
+
C
G(x)=F(x)+C
G(x)=F(x)+C
G
(
a
)
=
C
G(a)=C
G(a)=C
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ &F(x)=G(x)-C=G…
求积分方法
积分公式
∫ d u = u + c ∫ k d u = k u + c ∫ d u + d v = ∫ d u + ∫ d v ∫ u n d u = u n + 1 n + 1 + C ∫ 1 u d u = ln ∣ u ∣ + c ∫ sin u d u = − cos u + c ∫ cos u d u = sin u + c ∫ sec u d u = ln ∣ sec x + tan x ∣ + c ∫ csc u d u = − ln ∣ csc x + cot x ∣ + c ∫ sec 2 u d u = tan u + c ∫ csc 2 u d u = − cot u + c ∫ sec u tan u d u = sec u + c ∫ csc u cot u d u = − csc u + c ∫ tan u d u = ln ∣ sec u ∣ + C ∫ cot u d u = ln ∣ sin u ∣ + C ∫ e u d u = e u + c ∫ a u d u = a u ln a + c ∫ sinh u d u = cosh u d x + c ∫ cosh u d u = sinh u + c ∫ d u a 2 − u 2 = sin − 1 ( u a ) + c ∫ d u u 2 − a 2 = cos h − 1 ( u a ) + c ∫ d u a 2 + u 2 = sinh − 1 ( u a ) + c ∫ d u a 2 + u 2 = 1 a tan − 1 ( u a ) + c ∫ d u u u 2 − a 2 = 1 a sec − 1 ( u a ) + C \begin{aligned} &\int d u=u+c\\ &\int k d u=k u+c\\ &\int du + dv=\int d u+\int d v\\ &\int u^{n} d u=\frac{u^{n+1}}{n+1}+C\\ &\int \frac{1}{u} d u=\ln |u|+c\\ &\int \sin u d u=-\cos u+c\\ &\int \cos u d u=\sin u+c\\ &\int \sec u d u=\ln |\sec x+\tan x|+c\\ &\int \csc u d u=-\ln |\csc x+\cot x|+c\\ &\int \sec ^{2} u d u=\tan u+c\\ &\int \csc ^{2} u d u=-\cot u+c\\ &\int \sec u \tan u d u=\sec u+c\\ &\int \csc u \cot u d u=-\csc u+c\\ &\int \tan u d u=\ln |\sec u|+C\\ &\int \cot u d u=\ln |\sin u|+C\\ &\int e^{u} d u=e^{u}+c \\ &\int a^{u} d u=\frac{a^{u}}{\ln a}+c\\ &\int \sinh u d u=\cosh u d x+c\\ &\int \cosh u d u=\sinh u+c\\ &\int \frac{d u}{\sqrt{a^{2}-u^{2}}}=\sin ^{-1}\left(\frac{u}{a}\right)+c\\ &\int \frac{d u}{\sqrt{u^{2}-a^{2}}}=\cos h^{-1}\left(\frac{u}{a}\right)+c \\ &\int \frac{d u}{\sqrt{a^{2}+u^{2}}}=\sinh ^{-1}\left(\frac{u}{a}\right)+c \\ &\int \frac{d u}{a^{2}+u^{2}}=\frac{1}{a} \tan ^{-1}\left(\frac{u}{a}\right)+c\\ &\int \frac{d u}{u \sqrt{u^{2}-a^{2}}}=\frac{1}{a} \sec ^{-1}\left(\frac{u}{a}\right)+C \end{aligned} ∫du=u+c∫kdu=ku+c∫du+dv=∫du+∫dv∫undu=n+1un+1+C∫u1du=ln∣u∣+c∫sinudu=−cosu+c∫cosudu=sinu+c∫secudu=ln∣secx+tanx∣+c∫cscudu=−ln∣cscx+cotx∣+c∫sec2udu=tanu+c∫csc2udu=−cotu+c∫secutanudu=secu+c∫cscucotudu=−cscu+c∫tanudu=ln∣secu∣+C∫cotudu=ln∣sinu∣+C∫eudu=eu+c∫audu=lnaau+c∫sinhudu=coshudx+c∫coshudu=sinhu+c∫a2−u2du=sin−1(au)+c∫u2−a2du=cosh−1(au)+c∫a2+u2du=sinh−1(au)+c∫a2+u2du=a1tan−1(au)+c∫uu2−a2du=a1sec−1(au)+C
变量替换
替换积分法
当f和g’是连续函数时,为求积分 ∫ f ( g ( x ) ) g ′ ( x ) d x \int f(g(x))g'(x)dx ∫f(g(x))g′(x)dx
- 做替换 u = g ( x ) u=g(x) u=g(x),则 d u = g ′ ( x ) d x du=g'(x)dx du=g′(x)dx,得到积分 ∫ f ( u ) d u \int f(u)du ∫f(u)du
- 对u积分
- 使用g(x)替代u
定积分的变量替换
∫ a b f ( g ( x ) ) ⋅ g ′ ( x ) d x = ∫ g ( a ) g ( b ) f ( u ) d u \int _a^bf(g(x))\cdot g'(x)dx=\int_{g(a)}^{g(b)}f(u)du ∫abf(g(x))⋅g′(x)dx=∫g(a)g(b)f(u)du
分部积分
分部积分公式
∫ u d v = u v − ∫ v d u \int u\mathrm{d}v=uv-\int v\mathrm{d}u ∫udv=uv−∫vdu
Proof:
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 8: \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{\mathrm{…
部分分式
三角换元
三角替换
- x = a t a n θ x=atan\theta x=atanθ a 2 + x 2 = a 2 s e c 2 θ a^2+x^2=a^2sec^2\theta a2+x2=a2sec2θ
- x = a s i n θ x=asin\theta x=asinθ a 2 − x 2 = a 2 c o s 2 θ a^2-x^2=a^2cos^2\theta a2−x2=a2cos2θ
- x = a s e c θ x=asec\theta x=asecθ x 2 − a 2 = a 2 t a n 2 θ x^2-a^2=a^2tan^2\theta x2−a2=a2tan2θ
估算积分
积分的应用
计算体积
切片法
旋转轴为y=h
V = ∫ a b π ( y − h ) 2 d x V=\int_a^b\pi (y-h)^2 dx V=∫abπ(y−h)2dx
壳法
旋转轴为x=h
V = ∫ a b 2 π ( x − h ) y d x V=\int_a^b2\pi(x-h)ydx V=∫ab2π(x−h)ydx
椎体体积
椎体体积
V = ∫ 0 h A ( x ) d x = 1 3 A h V=\int_0^hA(x)dx=\frac{1}{3}Ah V=∫0hA(x)dx=31Ah
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Proof:
KaTeX parse error: No such environment: align at position 16: {align} \begin{̲a̲l̲i̲g̲n̲}̲ \frac{x}{l}=\f… {align}
计算弧长
L = ∫ a b 1 + ( d y d x ) 2 d x L = ∫ t 0 t 1 ( d y d t ) 2 + ( d x d t ) 2 d x L = ∫ θ 0 θ 1 f ( θ ) 2 + f ′ ( θ ) 2 d x L=\int_a^b \sqrt{1+(\frac{dy}{dx})^2}dx\\ L=\int_{t_0}^{t_1} \sqrt{(\frac{dy}{dt})^2+(\frac{dx}{dt})^2}dx\\ L=\int_{\theta_0}^{\theta_1} \sqrt{f(\theta)^2+f'(\theta)^2}dx L=∫ab1+(dxdy)2dxL=∫t0t1(dtdy)2+(dtdx)2dxL=∫θ0θ1f(θ)2+f′(θ)2dx
计算旋转体表面积
S = ∫ a b 2 π y 1 + ( d y d x ) 2 d x S = ∫ t 0 t 1 2 π y ( d y d t ) 2 + ( d x d t ) 2 d t S=\int_a^b2\pi y\sqrt{1+(\frac{dy}{dx})^2}dx\\ S=\int_{t_0}^{t_1}2\pi y\sqrt{(\frac{dy}{dt})^2+(\frac{dx}{dt})^2}dt S=∫ab2πy1+(dxdy)2dxS=∫t0t12πy(dtdy)2+(dtdx)2dt
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