线性代数
行列式
1.行列式按行(列)展开定理
(1)
设
A
=
(
a
ij
)
n
×
n
A = \left( a_{\text{ij}} \right)_{n \times n}
A=(aij)n×n,则:$a_{i1}A_{j1} + a_{i2}A_{j2} + \cdots + a_{\text{in}}A_{\text{jn}} = \left{ \begin{matrix}
& \left| A \right|,i = j \
& 0,i \neq j \
\end{matrix} \right.\ $
或$a_{1i}A_{1j} + a_{2i}A_{2j} + \cdots + a_{\text{ni}}A_{\text{nj}} = \left{ \begin{matrix}
& \left| A \right|,i = j \
& 0,i \neq j \
\end{matrix} \right.\ $
即
A
A
∗
=
A
∗
A
=
∣
A
∣
E
,
AA^{\ast} = A^{\ast}A = \left| A \right|E,
AA∗=A∗A=∣A∣E,其中:
A
∗
=
(
A
11
A
12
…
A
1
n
A
21
A
22
…
A
2
n
…
…
…
…
A
n
1
A
n
2
…
A
nn
)
=
(
A
ji
)
=
(
A
ij
)
T
A^{\ast} = \begin{pmatrix} A_{11} & A_{12} & \ldots & A_{1n} \\ A_{21} & A_{22} & \ldots & A_{2n} \\ \ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\ A_{n1} & A_{n2} & \ldots & A_{\text{nn}} \\ \end{pmatrix} = (A_{\text{ji}}) = {(A_{\text{ij}})}^{T}
A∗=
A11A21…An1A12A22…An2…………A1nA2n…Ann
=(Aji)=(Aij)T
D n = ∣ 1 1 … 1 x 1 x 2 … x n … … … … x 1 n − 1 x 2 n − 1 … x n n − 1 ∣ = = ∏ 1 ≤ j < i ≤ n ( x i − x j ) D_{n} = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & 1 & \ldots & 1 \\ x_{1} & x_{2} & \ldots & x_{n} \\ \ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\ x_{1}^{n - 1} & x_{2}^{n - 1} & \ldots & x_{n}^{n - 1} \\ \end{vmatrix} = = \prod_{1 \leq j < i \leq n}^{}\,(x_{i} - x_{j}) Dn= 1x1…x1n−11x2…x2n−1…………1xn…xnn−1 ==∏1≤j<i≤n(xi−xj)
(2)
设
A
,
B
A,B
A,B为
n
n
n阶方阵,则
∣
AB
∣
=
∣
A
∣
∣
B
∣
=
∣
B
∣
∣
A
∣
=
∣
BA
∣
\left| \text{AB} \right| = \left| A \right|\left| B \right| = \left| B \right|\left| A \right| = \left| \text{BA} \right|
∣AB∣=∣A∣∣B∣=∣B∣∣A∣=∣BA∣,但
∣
A
±
B
∣
=
∣
A
∣
±
∣
B
∣
\left| A \pm B \right| = \left| A \right| \pm \left| B \right|
∣A±B∣=∣A∣±∣B∣不一定成立。
(3) ∣ kA ∣ = k n ∣ A ∣ \left| \text{kA} \right| = k^{n}\left| A \right| ∣kA∣=kn∣A∣, A A A为 n n n阶方阵。
(4)
设
A
A
A为
n
n
n阶方阵,
∣
A
T
∣
=
∣
A
∣
;
∣
A
−
1
∣
=
∣
A
∣
−
1
|A^{T}| = |A|;|A^{- 1}| = |A|^{- 1}
∣AT∣=∣A∣;∣A−1∣=∣A∣−1(若
A
A
A可逆),
∣
A
∗
∣
=
∣
A
∣
n
−
1
|A^{\ast}| = |A|^{n - 1}
∣A∗∣=∣A∣n−1
n ≥ 2 n \geq 2 n≥2
(5) $\left| \begin{matrix}
& \text{A\quad O} \
& \text{O\quad B} \
\end{matrix} \right| = \left| \begin{matrix}
& \text{A\quad C} \
& \text{O\quad B} \
\end{matrix} \right| = \left| \begin{matrix}
& \text{A\quad O} \
& \text{C\quad B} \
\end{matrix} \right| = \left| A||B| \right.\ $
,
A
,
B
A,B
A,B为方阵,但
∣
O
A
m
×
m
B
n
×
n
O
∣
=
(
−
1
)
mn
∣
A
∣
∣
B
∣
\left| \begin{matrix} & \text{O\quad\quad}A_{m \times m} \\ & B_{n \times n}\text{\quad O} \\ \end{matrix} \right| = ({- 1)}^{\text{mn}}|A||B|
OAm×mBn×nO
=(−1)mn∣A∣∣B∣ 。
(6) 范德蒙行列式 D n = ∣ 1 1 … 1 x 1 x 2 … x n … … … … x 1 n − 1 x 2 n − 1 … x n n − 1 ∣ = = ∏ 1 ≤ j < i ≤ n ( x i − x j ) D_{n} = \begin{vmatrix} 1 & 1 & \ldots & 1 \\ x_{1} & x_{2} & \ldots & x_{n} \\ \ldots & \ldots & \ldots & \ldots \\ x_{1}^{n - 1} & x_{2}^{n - 1} & \ldots & x_{n}^{n - 1} \\ \end{vmatrix} = = \prod_{1 \leq j < i \leq n}^{}\,(x_{i} - x_{j}) Dn= 1x1…x1n−11x2…x2n−1…………1xn…xnn−1 ==∏1≤j<i≤n(xi−xj)
设
A
A
A是
n
n
n阶方阵,
λ
i
(
i
=
1
,
2
⋯
,
n
)
\lambda_{i}(i = 1,2\cdots,n)
λi(i=1,2⋯,n)是
A
A
A的
n
n
n个特征值,则
∣
A
∣
=
∏
i
=
1
n
λ
i
|A| = \prod_{i = 1}^{n}\lambda_{i}
∣A∣=∏i=1nλi
矩阵
矩阵:
m
×
n
m \times n
m×n个数
a
ij
a_{\text{ij}}
aij排成
m
m
m行
n
n
n列的表格
[
a
11
a
12
⋯
a
1
n
a
21
a
22
⋯
a
2
n
⋯
⋯
⋯
⋯
⋯
a
m
1
a
m
2
⋯
a
mn
]
\begin{bmatrix} & a_{11}\quad a_{12}\quad\cdots\quad a_{1n} \\ & a_{21}\quad a_{22}\quad\cdots\quad a_{2n} \\ & \quad\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots \\ & a_{m1}\quad a_{m2}\quad\cdots\quad a_{\text{mn}} \\ \end{bmatrix}
a11a12⋯a1na21a22⋯a2n⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯am1am2⋯amn
称为矩阵,简记为
A
A
A,或者
(
a
ij
)
m
×
n
\left( a_{\text{ij}} \right)_{m \times n}
(aij)m×n
。若
m
=
n
m = n
m=n,则称
A
A
A是
n
n
n阶矩阵或
n
n
n阶方阵。
**矩阵的线性运算 **
**1.矩阵的加法 **
设
A
=
(
a
ij
)
,
B
=
(
b
ij
)
A = (a_{\text{ij}}),B = (b_{\text{ij}})
A=(aij),B=(bij)是两个
m
×
n
m \times n
m×n矩阵,则
m
×
n
m \times n
m×n
矩阵
C
=
(
c
ij
)
=
a
ij
+
b
ij
C = (c_{\text{ij}}) = a_{\text{ij}} + b_{\text{ij}}
C=(cij)=aij+bij称为矩阵
A
A
A与
B
B
B的和,记为
A
+
B
=
C
A + B = C
A+B=C
。
**2.矩阵的数乘 **
设 A = ( a ij ) A = (a_{\text{ij}}) A=(aij)是 m × n m \times n m×n矩阵, k k k是一个常数,则 m × n m \times n m×n矩阵 ( k a ij ) (ka_{\text{ij}}) (kaij)称为数 k k k与矩阵 A A A的数乘,记为 kA \text{kA} kA。
**3.矩阵的乘法 **
设
A
=
(
a
ij
)
A = (a_{\text{ij}})
A=(aij)是
m
×
n
m \times n
m×n矩阵,
B
=
(
b
ij
)
B = (b_{\text{ij}})
B=(bij)是
n
×
s
n \times s
n×s矩阵,那么
m
×
s
m \times s
m×s矩阵
C
=
(
c
ij
)
C = (c_{\text{ij}})
C=(cij),其中
c
ij
=
a
i
1
b
1
j
+
a
i
2
b
2
j
+
⋯
+
a
in
b
nj
=
∑
k
=
1
n
a
ik
b
kj
c_{\text{ij}} = a_{i1}b_{1j} + a_{i2}b_{2j} + \cdots + a_{\text{in}}b_{\text{nj}} = \sum_{k = 1}^{n}{a_{\text{ik}}b_{\text{kj}}}
cij=ai1b1j+ai2b2j+⋯+ainbnj=∑k=1naikbkj称为
AB
\text{AB}
AB的乘积,记为
C
=
A
B
C = AB
C=AB
。
4.
A
T
\mathbf{A}^{\mathbf{T}}
AT、
A
−
1
\mathbf{A}^{\mathbf{- 1}}
A−1、
A
∗
\mathbf{A}^{\mathbf{\ast}}
A∗**三者之间的关系
**
(1)
(
A
T
)
T
=
A
,
(
A
B
)
T
=
B
T
A
T
,
(
k
A
)
T
=
k
A
T
,
(
A
±
B
)
T
=
A
T
±
B
T
{(A^{T})}^{T} = A,{(AB)}^{T} = B^{T}A^{T},{(kA)}^{T} = kA^{T},{(A \pm B)}^{T} = A^{T} \pm B^{T}
(AT)T=A,(AB)T=BTAT,(kA)T=kAT,(A±B)T=AT±BT
(2)
(
A
−
1
)
−
1
=
A
,
(
AB
)
−
1
=
B
−
1
A
−
1
,
(
kA
)
−
1
=
1
k
A
−
1
,
\left( A^{- 1} \right)^{- 1} = A,\left( \text{AB} \right)^{- 1} = B^{- 1}A^{- 1},\left( \text{kA} \right)^{- 1} = \frac{1}{k}A^{- 1},
(A−1)−1=A,(AB)−1=B−1A−1,(kA)−1=k1A−1,
但 ( A ± B ) − 1 = A − 1 ± B − 1 {(A \pm B)}^{- 1} = A^{- 1} \pm B^{- 1} (A±B)−1=A−1±B−1不一定成立。
(3)
(
A
∗
)
∗
=
∣
A
∣
n
−
2
A
(
n
≥
3
)
\left( A^{\ast} \right)^{\ast} = |A|^{n - 2}\ A\ \ (n \geq 3)
(A∗)∗=∣A∣n−2 A (n≥3),
(
AB
)
∗
=
B
∗
A
∗
,
\left( \text{AB} \right)^{\ast} = B^{\ast}A^{\ast},
(AB)∗=B∗A∗,
(
kA
)
∗
=
k
n
−
1
A
∗
(
n
≥
2
)
\left( \text{kA} \right)^{\ast} = k^{n - 1}A^{\ast}\text{\ \ }\left( n \geq 2 \right)
(kA)∗=kn−1A∗ (n≥2)
但 ( A ± B ) ∗ = A ∗ ± B ∗ \left( A \pm B \right)^{\ast} = A^{\ast} \pm B^{\ast} (A±B)∗=A∗±B∗不一定成立。
(4)
(
A
−
1
)
T
=
(
A
T
)
−
1
,
(
A
−
1
)
∗
=
(
A
A
∗
)
−
1
,
(
A
∗
)
T
=
(
A
T
)
∗
{(A^{- 1})}^{T} = {(A^{T})}^{- 1},\ \left( A^{- 1} \right)^{\ast} = {(AA^{\ast})}^{- 1},{(A^{\ast})}^{T} = \left( A^{T} \right)^{\ast}
(A−1)T=(AT)−1, (A−1)∗=(AA∗)−1,(A∗)T=(AT)∗
5.有关 A ∗ \mathbf{A}^{\mathbf{\ast}} A∗**的结论 **
(1) A A ∗ = A ∗ A = ∣ A ∣ E AA^{\ast} = A^{\ast}A = |A|E AA∗=A∗A=∣A∣E
(2)
∣
A
∗
∣
=
∣
A
∣
n
−
1
(
n
≥
2
)
,
(
k
A
)
∗
=
k
n
−
1
A
∗
,
(
A
∗
)
∗
=
∣
A
∣
n
−
2
A
(
n
≥
3
)
|A^{\ast}| = |A|^{n - 1}\ (n \geq 2),\ \ \ \ {(kA)}^{\ast} = k^{n - 1}A^{\ast},{\text{\ \ }\left( A^{\ast} \right)}^{\ast} = |A|^{n - 2}A(n \geq 3)
∣A∗∣=∣A∣n−1 (n≥2), (kA)∗=kn−1A∗, (A∗)∗=∣A∣n−2A(n≥3)
(3)
若
A
A
A可逆,则
A
∗
=
∣
A
∣
A
−
1
,
(
A
∗
)
∗
=
1
∣
A
∣
A
A^{\ast} = |A|A^{- 1},{(A^{\ast})}^{\ast} = \frac{1}{|A|}A
A∗=∣A∣A−1,(A∗)∗=∣A∣1A
(4) 若 A A A为 n n n阶方阵,则:
$r(A^{\ast}) = \left{ \begin{matrix}
& n,\quad r(A) = n \
& 1,\quad r(A) = n - 1 \
& 0,\quad r(A) < n - 1 \
\end{matrix} \right.\ $
6.有关 A − 1 \mathbf{A}^{\mathbf{- 1}} A−1的结论
A A A可逆 ⇔ A B = E ; ⇔ ∣ A ∣ ≠ 0 ; ⇔ r ( A ) = n ; \Leftrightarrow AB = E; \Leftrightarrow |A| \neq 0; \Leftrightarrow r(A) = n; ⇔AB=E;⇔∣A∣=0;⇔r(A)=n;
⇔ A \Leftrightarrow A ⇔A可以表示为初等矩阵的乘积;$\Leftrightarrow A; \Leftrightarrow Ax = 0\ $。
7.有关矩阵秩的结论
(1) 秩 r ( A ) r(A) r(A)=行秩=列秩;
(2) r ( A m × n ) ≤ min ( m , n ) ; r(A_{m \times n}) \leq \min(m,n); r(Am×n)≤min(m,n);
(3) A ≠ 0 ⇒ r ( A ) ≥ 1 A \neq 0 \Rightarrow r(A) \geq 1 A=0⇒r(A)≥1;
(4) r ( A ± B ) ≤ r ( A ) + r ( B ) ; r(A \pm B) \leq r(A) + r(B); r(A±B)≤r(A)+r(B);
(5) 初等变换不改变矩阵的秩
(6) r ( A ) + r ( B ) − n ≤ r ( A B ) ≤ min ( r ( A ) , r ( B ) ) , r(A) + r(B) - n \leq r(AB) \leq \min(r(A),r(B)), r(A)+r(B)−n≤r(AB)≤min(r(A),r(B)),特别若 A B = O AB = O AB=O
则: r ( A ) + r ( B ) ≤ n r(A) + r(B) \leq n r(A)+r(B)≤n
(7) 若
A
−
1
A^{- 1}
A−1存在
⇒
r
(
A
B
)
=
r
(
B
)
;
\Rightarrow r(AB) = r(B);
⇒r(AB)=r(B); 若
B
−
1
B^{- 1}
B−1存在
⇒
r
(
A
B
)
=
r
(
A
)
;
\Rightarrow r(AB) = r(A);
⇒r(AB)=r(A);
若
r
(
A
m
×
n
)
=
n
⇒
r
(
A
B
)
=
r
(
B
)
;
r(A_{m \times n}) = n \Rightarrow r(AB) = r(B);
r(Am×n)=n⇒r(AB)=r(B);
若
r
(
A
m
×
s
)
=
n
⇒
r
(
A
B
)
=
r
(
A
)
r(A_{m \times s}) = n \Rightarrow r(AB) = r\left( A \right)
r(Am×s)=n⇒r(AB)=r(A)。
(8) r ( A m × s ) = n ⇔ A x = 0 r(A_{m \times s}) = n \Leftrightarrow Ax = 0 r(Am×s)=n⇔Ax=0只有零解
8.分块求逆公式
( A O O B ) − 1 = ( A − 1 O O B − 1 ) \begin{pmatrix} A & O \\ O & B \\ \end{pmatrix}^{- 1} = \begin{pmatrix} A^{- 1} & O \\ O & B^{- 1} \\ \end{pmatrix} (AOOB)−1=(A−1OOB−1); ( A C O B ) − 1 = ( A − 1 − A − 1 C B − 1 O B − 1 ) \begin{pmatrix} A & C \\ O & B \\ \end{pmatrix}^{- 1} = \begin{pmatrix} & A^{- 1}\quad - A^{- 1}CB^{- 1} \\ & \text{O\quad\quad\quad}B^{- 1} \\ \end{pmatrix} (AOCB)−1=(A−1−A−1CB−1OB−1);
( A O C B ) − 1 = ( A − 1 O − B − 1 C A − 1 B − 1 ) \begin{pmatrix} A & O \\ C & B \\ \end{pmatrix}^{- 1} = \begin{pmatrix} & A^{- 1}\text{\quad\quad\:\:\quad O} \\ & - B^{- 1}CA^{- 1}\quad B^{- 1} \\ \end{pmatrix} (ACOB)−1=(A−1O−B−1CA−1B−1); ( O A B O ) − 1 = ( O B − 1 A − 1 O ) \begin{pmatrix} O & A \\ B & O \\ \end{pmatrix}^{- 1} = \begin{pmatrix} O & B^{- 1} \\ A^{- 1} & O \\ \end{pmatrix} (OBAO)−1=(OA−1B−1O)
这里 A A A, B B B均为可逆方阵。
向量
**1.有关向量组的线性表示 **
(1)
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs线性相关
⇔
\Leftrightarrow
⇔至少有一个向量可以用其余向量线性表示。
(2)
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs线性无关,
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs,
β
\beta
β线性相关
⇔
β
\Leftrightarrow \beta
⇔β可以由
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs唯一线性表示。
(3)
β
\beta
β可以由
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs线性表示
⇔
r
(
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
)
=
r
(
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
,
β
)
\Leftrightarrow r(\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}) = r(\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s},\beta)
⇔r(α1,α2,⋯,αs)=r(α1,α2,⋯,αs,β)
。
**2.有关向量组的线性相关性 **
(1)部分相关,整体相关;整体无关,部分无关.
(2) ①
n
n
n个
n
n
n维向量
α
1
,
α
2
⋯
α
n
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2}\cdots\alpha_{n}
α1,α2⋯αn线性无关
⇔
∣
[
α
1
α
2
⋯
α
n
]
∣
≠
0
\Leftrightarrow \left| \left\lbrack \alpha_{1}\alpha_{2}\cdots\alpha_{n} \right\rbrack \right| \neq 0
⇔∣[α1α2⋯αn]∣=0,
n
n
n个
n
n
n维向量
α
1
,
α
2
⋯
α
n
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2}\cdots\alpha_{n}
α1,α2⋯αn线性相关
⇔
∣
[
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
n
]
∣
=
0
\Leftrightarrow |\lbrack\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n}\rbrack| = 0
⇔∣[α1,α2,⋯,αn]∣=0
。
② n + 1 n + 1 n+1个 n n n维向量线性相关。
③
若
α
1
,
α
2
⋯
α
S
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2}\cdots\alpha_{S}
α1,α2⋯αS线性无关,则添加分量后仍线性无关;或一组向量线性相关,去掉某些分量后仍线性相关。
3.有关向量组的线性表示
(1)
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs线性相关
⇔
\Leftrightarrow
⇔至少有一个向量可以用其余向量线性表示。
(2)
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs线性无关,
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs,
β
\beta
β线性相关
⇔
β
\Leftrightarrow \beta
⇔β
可以由
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs唯一线性表示。
(3)
β
\beta
β可以由
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs线性表示
⇔
r
(
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
)
=
r
(
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
,
β
)
\Leftrightarrow r(\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}) = r(\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s},\beta)
⇔r(α1,α2,⋯,αs)=r(α1,α2,⋯,αs,β)
4.向量组的秩与矩阵的秩之间的关系
设 r ( A m × n ) = r r(A_{m \times n}) = r r(Am×n)=r,则 A A A的秩 r ( A ) r(A) r(A)与 A A A的行列向量组的线性相关性关系为:
(1) 若 r ( A m × n ) = r = m r(A_{m \times n}) = r = m r(Am×n)=r=m,则 A A A的行向量组线性无关。
(2) 若 r ( A m × n ) = r < m r(A_{m \times n}) = r < m r(Am×n)=r<m,则 A A A的行向量组线性相关。
(3) 若 r ( A m × n ) = r = n r(A_{m \times n}) = r = n r(Am×n)=r=n,则 A A A的列向量组线性无关。
(4) 若 r ( A m × n ) = r < n r(A_{m \times n}) = r < n r(Am×n)=r<n,则 A A A的列向量组线性相关。
5. n \mathbf{n} n**维向量空间的基变换公式及过渡矩阵 **
若 α 1 , α 2 , ⋯ , α n \alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n} α1,α2,⋯,αn与 β 1 , β 2 , ⋯ , β n \beta_{1},\beta_{2},\cdots,\beta_{n} β1,β2,⋯,βn是向量空间 V V V的两组基,则基变换公式为:
( β 1 , β 2 , ⋯ , β n ) = ( α 1 , α 2 , ⋯ , α n ) [ c 11 c 12 ⋯ c 1 n c 21 c 22 ⋯ c 2 n ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ c n 1 c n 2 ⋯ c nn ] = ( α 1 , α 2 , ⋯ , α n ) C (\beta_{1},\beta_{2},\cdots,\beta_{n}) = (\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n})\begin{bmatrix} & c_{11}\quad c_{12}\quad\cdots\quad c_{1n} \\ & c_{21}\quad c_{22}\quad\cdots\quad c_{2n} \\ & \quad\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots \\ & c_{n1}\quad c_{n2}\quad\cdots\quad c_{\text{nn}} \\ \end{bmatrix} = (\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n})C (β1,β2,⋯,βn)=(α1,α2,⋯,αn) c11c12⋯c1nc21c22⋯c2n⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯cn1cn2⋯cnn =(α1,α2,⋯,αn)C
其中 C C C是可逆矩阵,称为由基 α 1 , α 2 , ⋯ , α n \alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n} α1,α2,⋯,αn到基 β 1 , β 2 , ⋯ , β n \beta_{1},\beta_{2},\cdots,\beta_{n} β1,β2,⋯,βn的过渡矩阵。
**6.坐标变换公式 **
若向量
γ
\gamma
γ在基
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
n
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n}
α1,α2,⋯,αn与基
β
1
,
β
2
,
⋯
,
β
n
\beta_{1},\beta_{2},\cdots,\beta_{n}
β1,β2,⋯,βn的坐标分别是
X
=
(
x
1
,
x
2
,
⋯
,
x
n
)
T
X = {(x_{1},x_{2},\cdots,x_{n})}^{T}
X=(x1,x2,⋯,xn)T,
Y
=
(
y
1
,
y
2
,
⋯
,
y
n
)
T
Y = \left( y_{1},y_{2},\cdots,y_{n} \right)^{T}
Y=(y1,y2,⋯,yn)T 即:
γ
=
x
1
α
1
+
x
2
α
2
+
⋯
+
x
n
α
n
=
y
1
β
1
+
y
2
β
2
+
⋯
+
y
n
β
n
\gamma = x_{1}\alpha_{1} + x_{2}\alpha_{2} + \cdots + x_{n}\alpha_{n} = y_{1}\beta_{1} + y_{2}\beta_{2} + \cdots + y_{n}\beta_{n}
γ=x1α1+x2α2+⋯+xnαn=y1β1+y2β2+⋯+ynβn,则向量坐标变换公式为
X
=
C
Y
X = CY
X=CY
或
Y
=
C
−
1
X
Y = C^{- 1}X
Y=C−1X
,其中
C
C
C是从基
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
n
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n}
α1,α2,⋯,αn到基
β
1
,
β
2
,
⋯
,
β
n
\beta_{1},\beta_{2},\cdots,\beta_{n}
β1,β2,⋯,βn的过渡矩阵。
7.向量的内积
( α , β ) = a 1 b 1 + a 2 b 2 + ⋯ + a n b n = α T β = β T α (\alpha,\beta) = a_{1}b_{1} + a_{2}b_{2} + \cdots + a_{n}b_{n} = \alpha^{T}\beta = \beta^{T}\alpha (α,β)=a1b1+a2b2+⋯+anbn=αTβ=βTα
8.Schmidt正交化
若
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
s
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{s}
α1,α2,⋯,αs线性无关,则可构造
β
1
,
β
2
,
⋯
,
β
s
\beta_{1},\beta_{2},\cdots,\beta_{s}
β1,β2,⋯,βs使其两两正交,且
β
i
\beta_{i}
βi仅是
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
i
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{i}
α1,α2,⋯,αi的线性组合
(
i
=
1
,
2
,
⋯
,
n
)
(i = 1,2,\cdots,n)
(i=1,2,⋯,n),再把
β
i
\beta_{i}
βi单位化,记
γ
i
=
β
i
∣
β
i
∣
\gamma_{i} = \frac{\beta_{i}}{\left| \beta_{i} \right|}
γi=∣βi∣βi,则
γ
1
,
γ
2
,
⋯
,
γ
i
\gamma_{1},\gamma_{2},\cdots,\gamma_{i}
γ1,γ2,⋯,γi是规范正交向量组。其中
β
1
=
α
1
\beta_{1} = \alpha_{1}
β1=α1,
β
2
=
α
2
−
(
α
2
,
β
1
)
(
β
1
,
β
1
)
β
1
\beta_{2} = \alpha_{2} - \frac{(\alpha_{2},\beta_{1})}{(\beta_{1},\beta_{1})}\beta_{1}
β2=α2−(β1,β1)(α2,β1)β1
,
β
3
=
α
3
−
(
α
3
,
β
1
)
(
β
1
,
β
1
)
β
1
−
(
α
3
,
β
2
)
(
β
2
,
β
2
)
β
2
\beta_{3} = \alpha_{3} - \frac{(\alpha_{3},\beta_{1})}{(\beta_{1},\beta_{1})}\beta_{1} - \frac{(\alpha_{3},\beta_{2})}{(\beta_{2},\beta_{2})}\beta_{2}
β3=α3−(β1,β1)(α3,β1)β1−(β2,β2)(α3,β2)β2
,
…
β s = α s − ( α s , β 1 ) ( β 1 , β 1 ) β 1 − ( α s , β 2 ) ( β 2 , β 2 ) β 2 − ⋯ − ( α s , β s − 1 ) ( β s − 1 , β s − 1 ) β s − 1 \beta_{s} = \alpha_{s} - \frac{(\alpha_{s},\beta_{1})}{(\beta_{1},\beta_{1})}\beta_{1} - \frac{(\alpha_{s},\beta_{2})}{(\beta_{2},\beta_{2})}\beta_{2} - \cdots - \frac{(\alpha_{s},\beta_{s - 1})}{(\beta_{s - 1},\beta_{s - 1})}\beta_{s - 1} βs=αs−(β1,β1)(αs,β1)β1−(β2,β2)(αs,β2)β2−⋯−(βs−1,βs−1)(αs,βs−1)βs−1
**9.正交基及规范正交基 **
向量空间一组基中的向量如果两两正交,就称为正交基;若正交基中每个向量都是单位向量,就称其为规范正交基。
线性方程组
1.克莱姆法则
线性方程组$\left{ \begin{matrix}
& a_{11}x_{1} + a_{12}x_{2} + \cdots + a_{1n}x_{n} = b_{1} \
& a_{21}x_{1} + a_{22}x_{2} + \cdots + a_{2n}x_{n} = b_{2} \
& \quad\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots\cdots \
& a_{n1}x_{1} + a_{n2}x_{2} + \cdots + a_{\text{nn}}x_{n} = b_{n} \
\end{matrix} \right.\
,如果系数行列式
,如果系数行列式
,如果系数行列式D = \left| A \right| \neq 0$,则方程组有唯一解,
x
1
=
D
1
D
,
x
2
=
D
2
D
,
⋯
,
x
n
=
D
n
D
x_{1} = \frac{D_{1}}{D},x_{2} = \frac{D_{2}}{D},\cdots,x_{n} = \frac{D_{n}}{D}
x1=DD1,x2=DD2,⋯,xn=DDn,其中
D
j
D_{j}
Dj是把
D
D
D中第
j
j
j列元素换成方程组右端的常数列所得的行列式。
2.
n
n
n阶矩阵
A
A
A可逆
⇔
A
x
=
0
\Leftrightarrow Ax = 0
⇔Ax=0只有零解。
⇔
∀
b
,
A
x
=
b
\Leftrightarrow \forall b,Ax = b
⇔∀b,Ax=b总有唯一解,一般地,
r
(
A
m
×
n
)
=
n
⇔
A
x
=
0
r(A_{m \times n}) = n \Leftrightarrow Ax = 0
r(Am×n)=n⇔Ax=0只有零解。
3.非奇次线性方程组有解的充分必要条件,线性方程组解的性质和解的结构
(1)
设
A
A
A为
m
×
n
m \times n
m×n矩阵,若
r
(
A
m
×
n
)
=
m
r(A_{m \times n}) = m
r(Am×n)=m,则对
A
x
=
b
Ax = b
Ax=b而言必有
r
(
A
)
=
r
(
A
⋮
b
)
=
m
r(A) = r(A \vdots b) = m
r(A)=r(A⋮b)=m,从而
A
x
=
b
Ax = b
Ax=b有解。
(2)
设
x
1
,
x
2
,
⋯
x
s
x_{1},x_{2},\cdots x_{s}
x1,x2,⋯xs为
A
x
=
b
Ax = b
Ax=b的解,则
k
1
x
1
+
k
2
x
2
+
⋯
+
k
s
x
s
k_{1}x_{1} + k_{2}x_{2} + \cdots + k_{s}x_{s}
k1x1+k2x2+⋯+ksxs当
k
1
+
k
2
+
⋯
+
k
s
=
1
k_{1} + k_{2} + \cdots + k_{s} = 1
k1+k2+⋯+ks=1时仍为
A
x
=
b
Ax = b
Ax=b的解;但当
k
1
+
k
2
+
⋯
+
k
s
=
0
k_{1} + k_{2} + \cdots + k_{s} = 0
k1+k2+⋯+ks=0时,则为
A
x
=
0
Ax = 0
Ax=0的解。特别
x
1
+
x
2
2
\frac{x_{1} + x_{2}}{2}
2x1+x2为
A
x
=
b
Ax = b
Ax=b的解;
2
x
3
−
(
x
1
+
x
2
)
2x_{3} - (x_{1} + x_{2})
2x3−(x1+x2)为
A
x
=
0
Ax = 0
Ax=0的解。
(3)
非齐次线性方程组
Ax
=
b
\text{Ax} = b
Ax=b无解
⇔
r
(
A
)
+
1
=
r
(
A
‾
)
⇔
b
\Leftrightarrow r(A) + 1 = r(\overline{A}) \Leftrightarrow b
⇔r(A)+1=r(A)⇔b不能由
A
A
A的列向量
α
1
,
α
2
,
⋯
,
α
n
\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\cdots,\alpha_{n}
α1,α2,⋯,αn线性表示。
**4.奇次线性方程组的基础解系和通解,解空间,非奇次线性方程组的通解 **
(1)
齐次方程组
Ax
=
0
\text{Ax} = 0
Ax=0恒有解(必有零解)。当有非零解时,由于解向量的任意线性组合仍是该齐次方程组的解向量,因此
Ax
=
0
\text{Ax} = 0
Ax=0的全体解向量构成一个向量空间,称为该方程组的解空间,解空间的维数是
n
−
r
(
A
)
n - r(A)
n−r(A),解空间的一组基称为齐次方程组的基础解系。
(2) η 1 , η 2 , ⋯ , η t \eta_{1},\eta_{2},\cdots,\eta_{t} η1,η2,⋯,ηt是 Ax = 0 \text{Ax} = 0 Ax=0的基础解系,即:
1) η 1 , η 2 , ⋯ , η t \eta_{1},\eta_{2},\cdots,\eta_{t} η1,η2,⋯,ηt是 Ax = 0 \text{Ax} = 0 Ax=0的解;
2) η 1 , η 2 , ⋯ , η t \eta_{1},\eta_{2},\cdots,\eta_{t} η1,η2,⋯,ηt线性无关;
Ax
=
0
\text{Ax} = 0
Ax=0的任一解都可以由
η
1
,
η
2
,
⋯
,
η
t
\eta_{1},\eta_{2},\cdots,\eta_{t}
η1,η2,⋯,ηt线性表出.
k
1
η
1
+
k
2
η
2
+
⋯
+
k
t
η
t
k_{1}\eta_{1} + k_{2}\eta_{2} + \cdots + k_{t}\eta_{t}
k1η1+k2η2+⋯+ktηt是
Ax
=
0
\text{Ax} = 0
Ax=0的通解,其中
k
1
,
k
2
,
⋯
,
k
t
k_{1},k_{2},\cdots,k_{t}
k1,k2,⋯,kt是任意常数。