计算机网络之数据链路层

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Reference:

• Computer Networking：A Top-Down Approach，7-th
• PPT of NEU(lx)

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• Nodes: any device that runs a link-layer protocol, include hosts, routers, switches, and WiFi Access points;

• Links：the communication channels that connect adjacent nodes along the communication path

  • wired links
  • wireless links

• Frame：layer-2 packet, encapsulates the datagram;

• 数据链路层的子层 (802委员将局域网的数据链路层拆分为两个子层以适应多种局域网标准)：

  • Logical Link Control (LLC, 逻辑链路控制) 子层

  • Medium Access Control (MAC, 媒体接入控制) 子层

  • 局域网对LLC子层是透明的：
    

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1. Introduction

1.1 The Services Provided by the Link Layer(链路层提供的服务)

• Framing(封装成帧):
  • Almost all link-layer protocols encapsulate each network-layer datagram within a link-layer frame before transmission over the link;
  • A frame consists of a data field, in which the network-layer datagram is inserted, and a number of header fields;
  • The structure of the frame is specified by the link-layer protocol;
• Link access(链路接入):
  • A medium access control (MAC) protocol specifies the rules by which a frame is transmitted onto the link.
  • Multiple access problem
    • MAC protocol serves to coordinate (协调) the frame transmissions of the many nodes.
  • MAC addresses used in frame headers to identity source, destination.
• Reliable delivery(可靠传输):
  • Often used for links (like wireless link) that are prone to high error rates;
  • Seldom used on low bit error link (such as fiber, some twisted pair);
• Error detection and correction(差错检测与纠正)：
  • Error: Introduced by signal attenuation (信号衰减) and electromagnetic noise (电磁噪声)
  • The mechanism to detect bit errors is done by：
    • Having the transmitting node including error-dectection bits in the frame
    • Having the receiving node perform an error check；
  • Error detection in the link layer is usually more sophisticated and is implemented in hardware；
  • Error correction：receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without resorting to retransmission；
• Half-duplex and full-duplex (半双工与全双工):
  • With half duplex, node at both ends of link can transmit, but not at same time

1.2 Where Is the Link Layer Implemented?(链路层在哪实现)

• For the most part, the link layer is implemented in a network adapter(网络适配器), also sometimes known as a network interface card (NIC，网络接口卡);
• Adapter is semi-autonomous (半自主的)
• 适配器的重要功能：
  • 串并行转换；
  • 缓存数据；
  • 在计算机的操作系统安装设备驱动程序；
  • 实现以太网协议；
• At the heart of the adapter is the link-layer controller;
• sending side :
  • encapsulates datagrame in a frame；
  • adds error checking bits, rdt (可靠数据传输), flow control；
• receiving side：
  • extracts datagram, passes to rcving node
    
• Network adapter’s relationship to other host components and to protocal stack functionality
  
  • The link-layer is a combination of hardware and software;

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2. Error-Detection and -Correction Techniques(差错检测与纠错技术)

• At the sending node, data, D, to be protected against bit errors is augmented with error-detection and -correction bits (EDC).
• Typically, the data to be protected includes not only the datagram passed down from the network layer for transmission across the link, but also link-level addressing information, sequence numbers, and other fields in the link frame header.

2.1 Parity Checks (奇偶校验)

• Single bit Parity (单比特奇偶校验)(even 偶数的; odd 奇数的)：

  • 偶校验：

• Two Dimensional Bit Parity (单比特的奇偶校验方案的二维推广，二维奇偶校验):

  • d bits in D are divided into i rows and j columns；
  • A parity value is computed for each row and for each column；
  • The parity of both the column and the row containing the flipped bit will be in error；
  • 奇偶校验位本身的错误亦可被检测和纠正；
  • Two-dimensional even parity：

• ***Forward error correction (FEC，正向纠错): The ability of the receiver to both detect and correct errors;

2.2 Checksumming Methods (校验和方法)

• In checksumming techniques, the d bits of data (see picture show before) are treated as a sequence of k-bit integers. One simple checksumming method is to simply sum these k-bit integers and use the resulting sum as the error-detection bits. The Internet checksum is based on this approach——bytes of data are treated as 16-bit integers and summed. The 1s complement of this sum then forms the Internet checksum that is carried in the segment header.
• Internet checksum (校验和)：used at transport layer only
  • Sender:
    • treat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integers
    • the internet checksum: addition (1’s complement sum) of segment contents
    • sender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field
  • Receiver:
    • compute checksum of received segment
    • check if computed checksum equals checksum field value:
      • NO: error detected;
      • YES: no error detected;
      • But maybe errors nonetheless (依然)

2.3 Cyclic Redundary Check (CRC) (循环冗余校验)

An error-detection technique used widely in today’s computer networks is based on cyclic redundancy check (CRC) codes，which are also known as polynommial.

CRC codes Oprerate as follows:

• Consider the d-bit piece of data, D, that the sending node wants to send to the receiving node;

• Choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), denote it as G;

• Sender: choose r additional bits, R, and append them to D such that:

  • <D, R> exactly divisible by G (using modulo-2 arithmetic);

    (All CRC calculations are done in modulo-2 arithmetic without carries in addition or borrows in subtraction)

  • Errors?

    • if the remainder is nonzero, an error has occurred;
    • otherwise the data is accepted as being corret;

• How to compute R:
  • D*2^r XOR R = nG;
  • Equal to: D*2^r = nG XOR R;
  • Equal to: R = D*2^r / (模-2除法) G
• Example：
  • All CRC calculations are done in modulo-2 arithmetic without carries in addition or borrows in subtraction.
    

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3. Mutiple Access Links and Protocols (多路访问链路和协议)

• Two types of “links”
  • Point-to-point link(点对点链路):
    • Consists of a single sender at one end of the link and a single receiver at the other end of the link;
    • Protocols designed for point-to-point links
      • point-to-point protocol;
      • high-level data link control (HDLC);
  • Broadcast link(广播链路):
    • Example:
      • traditional Ethernet;
      • HFC;
• Mutiple access protocols(多路访问协议):
  • Single shared broadcast channel;
  • Two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference
    • collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time;
  • Distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit;
  • Communication about channel sharing must use channel itself !
  • Ideally, a multiple access protocol for a broadcast channel of rate R bits per second should have the following desirable characteristics:
    • When only one node has data to send, that node has a throughput of R bps
    • When M nodes have data to send, each of these nodes has a throughput of R/M bps
    • The protocol is decentralized:
      • No master node that represents a single point of failure for the network;
      • No special node to coordinate transmissions;
      • No synchronization of clocks, slots;
    • Simple;

3.1 Channel Partitioning Protocols(信道划分协议)

• TDMA(时分多路复用): time division multiple access;

  • Divides time into time frames(时间帧) and further divides each time frame into N time slots(时隙), Each time slot is then assigned to one of the N nodes.

  • Advantages：

    • Eliminates collisions and is perfectly fair: Each node gets a dedicated (独占的)

      transmission rate of R/N bps during each frame time;

  • Drawbacks:

    • A node is limited to an average rate of R/N bps even when it is the only node with packets to send.

    • A node must always wait for its turn in the transmission sequence—again, even

      when it is the only node with a frame to send.

• FDMA(频分多路复用): frequency division multiple access;

  • Divides the R bps channel into different frequencies (each with a bandwidth of R/N) and assigns each frequency to one of the N nodes;
  • Shares both the advantages and drawbacks of TDM;

• CDMA(码分多路复用): code division multiple access;

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3.2 Random Access Prototols(随机接入协议)

• Slotted ALOHA(时隙 ALOHA):

  • Assumptions:

    • All frames consist of exactly L bits;
    • Time is divided into slots of size L/R seconds (that is, a slot equals the time to transmit one frame);
    • Nodes start to transmit frames only at the beginnings of slots;
    • The nodes are synchronized so that each node knows when the slots begin;
    • If two or more frames collide in a slot, then all the nodes detect the collision event before the slot ends.

  • The operation of slotted ALOHA in each node:

    • When the node has a fresh frame to send, it waits until the beginning of the next slot and transmits the entire frame in the slot;
    • If there isn’t a collision, the node has successfully transmitted its frame and thus need not consider retransmitting the frame;
    • If there is a collision, the node detects the collision before the end of the slot; The node retransmits its frame in each subsequent slot with probability p until the frame is transmitted without a collision.

  • 

  • Advantages:

    • Allows a node to transmit continuously at the full rate, R, when that node is the only active node;
    • Highly decentralized (分散) : each node detects collisions and independently decides when to retransmit;
    • Simple;

  • Disadvantages:

    • A certain fraction of the slots will have collisions and will therefore be “wasted”;
    • ldle slots;
    • Clock syschronnization;

  • Efficiency :

    • Define: the long-run fraction (长期占比) of successful slots in the case when there are a large number of active nodes, each always having a large number of frames to send；

      假设有N个结点有多个帧需要发送，结点在每个时隙发送帧的概率是p。则某个结点在某个时隙成功发送一个帧的概率为：
      $$p_1=p(1-p{)}^{N-1}$$
      在某个时隙成功发送了一个帧的概率为：
      $$p_2=N{p}_1=Np(1-p{)}^{N-1}$$
      求$p_2$最大值可得其最大效率为$\frac{1}{e}=0.37$。

• Pure ALOHA (unslotted)

  • The slotted ALOHA protocol required that all nodes synchronize their transmissions to start at the beginning of a slot;

  • In pure ALOHA, when a frame first arrives (that is, a network-layer datagram is passed down from the network layer at the sending node), the node immediately transmits the frame in its entirety into the broadcast channel;

    • If a transmitted frame experiences a collision with one or more other transmissions, the node will then immediately (after completely transmitting its collided frame) retransmit the frame with probability p.
    • Otherwise, the node waits for a frame transmission time.
    • After this wait, it then transmits the frame with probability p, or waits (remaining idle) for another frame time with probability 1 – p.

  • Collision probability increases:

    • Frame sent at $$t_0$$ collides with other frames sent in $$[t_0-1,t_0+1]$$;

  • Efficiency:
    

    • At any given time, the probability that a node is transmitting a frame is p.
    • Suppose this frame begins transmission at time $$t_0$$ .
    • The probability that a given node has a successful transmission is：
      • $$p(1-p{)}^{2(N-1)}$$;
      • Taking Limit : 1/2e = 0.18;

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• Carrier Sence Mutiple Access (载波侦听多路访问):

  • 传送前监听信道：

    • 如果信道空闲，则传送整个帧；
    • 如果繁忙，则推迟传送；

  • Collisions can still occur, and once occur, entire packet transmission time wasted;

  • Space-time diagrams (to explain collisions):

    

    • At time $t_0$, node B senses the channel is idle, as no other nodes are currently transmitting. Node B thus begins transmitting, with its bits propagating in both directions along the broadcast medium;

    • The downward propagation of B’s bits in Figure with increasing time indicates that a nonzero amount of time is needed for B’s bits actually to propagate (albeit at near the speed of light) along the broadcast medium;

    • At time $t_1(t_1>t_0)$ , node D has a frame to send (Although node B is currently transmitting at time $t_1$ , the bits being transmitted by B have yet to reach D, and thus D senses the channel idle at $t_1$).

    • In accordance with the CSMA protocol, D thus begins transmitting its frame. A

      short time later, B’s transmission begins to interfere with D’s transmission at D.

  • The end-to-end channel propagation delay of a broadcast channel play a crucial role in determining its performance and collision probability.

• CSMA with collision detection (CSMA/CD，载波侦听多路访问/冲突检测)：

  • In the foundation of CSMA, it adds a collision detection:

    • if detect collision has occurred, it will abort transmittion, and then send out a jamming signal (干扰信号，导致下面的时间延迟);

      
      

  • Adding collision detection to a multiple access protocol will help protocol performance by not transmitting a useless, damaged (by interference with a frame from another node) frame in its entirety.

  • Collision detection:

    • easy in wired LANs;
      • 在有线的局域网中监测信号强度measure signal strength，如果信号突然增强，则可能是发生了碰撞；
    • difficult in wireless LANs;

  • CSMA/CD dfficiency：

    • $T_{prop}$ = max prop bettween 2 nodes in LAN;

    • $T_{trans}$ = time to transmit max-size frame;

    $$efficiency=\frac{1}{1+5\frac{t_{prop}}{t_{trans}}}$$

• CDMA/CA(载波侦听多路访问/冲突避免)

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3.3 Taking-Turns Protocols(轮流协议)

略

4 Switched Local Area Networks (交换局域网)

4.1 Link-Layer Addressing and ARP(链路层寻址与地址解析协议)

• MAC Addresses (LAN Addresses)

  • A link-layer address is variously called a LAN address, a physical address, or a MAC address;

  • A host or router with multiple network interfaces (Adapters) will thus have multiple link-layer addresses associated with it;

  • Each interface(Adapter) connected to a LAN has a unique MAC address

    

  • Used to forward link-layer frames through the network of switches (Used to get frame from one interface to another physically-connected interface(same network));

  • 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in the adapter ROM;

    • $2^{48}$ possible MAC address;
    • Typically expressed in hexadecimal notation (see picture up):
      • No two adapters have the same address

  • MAC address allocation administered by IEEE:

    • Manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space (to assure uniqueness);

  • Analogy(类比):

    • MAC address：like Social Security Number or 身份证;

    • IP address：like postal address (邮编号)；

    • Mac flat address：Portability(可携带性)(doesn’t change no matter where the adapter goes)

    • IP hierarchical address：Not portable;

      • depend on IP subnet to which node is attached;

• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

  • Translate between network-layer addresses (IP) and link-layer addresses (MAC)

  • How to determine MAC address of A knowing A’s IP address? (ARP)

    

  • Each IP node (Host, Router) on LAN has ARP table

    • ARP Table：IP/MAC address mappings for some LAN nodes

      <IP address: Mac address: TTL>

      发送主机中的ARP模块以同一局域网上的任意IP地址作为输入，返回相应的MAC地址;

      TTL(Time to Live)：Time after which (ARP Table )will by forgotten(typically 20 min);

  • ARP protocal：same LAN(subnet)

    • A wants to send datagram to B, and B’s MAC address not in A’s ARP table;
    • A broadcosts ARP query packet, containg B’s IP address：
      • Dest MAC address ：广播地址(FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF);
      • all machines on LAN receives ARP query;
    • B receives ARP packet, repies to A with its (B’s) MAC address;
      • frame sent to A’s MAC address (unicast, 单波)；
    • A caches (saves) IP-to-Mac address pair in its ARP table unitl information become old (times out)
      • soft state：information that times out (goes away) unless refreshed;
    • ARP is “plug-and-play”(急插急用)：
      • nodes create their ARP tables without intervention(介入) from administrator；

  • Routing to another LAN：

    • Two subnets interconnected by a router(Two ARP table in router R, one for each IP network (LAN))

    

    • In routing table at source Host, find router 111.111.111.110.
    • In ARP table at source, find MAC address E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B, etc.
    • Source A creates datagram with source A, destination B;
    • A uses ARP and R’s IP address (111.111.111.110) to get R’s MAC address;
    • A creates link-layer frame with R’s MAC address as dest, frame contains A-to-B IP datagram;
    • A’s adapter sends frame, R’s adapter receives frame;
    • R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees its destined to B;
    • R uses ARP to get B’s MAC address;
    • R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B;