【北邮国院大四上】Business Technology Strategy 企业技术战略 Terms

写在前面的碎碎念

本篇文章是对于本门课明确涉及（即PPT中明确给出定义）的terms的整理，以便专门复习名词解释题，以及解决看后面PPT忘了前面介绍的terms的问题（数次发生在本人的复习期间）。
注意！ 难免有遗漏之处，请不要把本篇文章当做考纲，认为名词解释就会从这里面出，复习请以ppt为主。

本账号以后可能会随缘记录一些别的东西的笔记，也可能就这样了。
希望我这两年的努力可以帮到大家，以及后来者一些，虽然这个电子商务及法律这个专业已然成为过去式，但希望我的努力可以帮助到我仅剩的一届学弟学妹们。无论你是什么时候看到这篇文章，如果想要认识我，欢迎私信联系我。

以上。祝大家复习愉快，前程似锦，我们，有缘再见。

C1

Technological Innovation

The act of introducing a new device, method, or material for application to commercial or practical objectives.

C2

Innovation（have not found in PPT yet）

The practical implementatiopn of an idea into a new device or process

Creativity

• The ability to produce novel and useful work. 创造新颖和有用作品的能力。
• The beginning of innovation.

Individual Creativity

Individual creativity is a function of:

• Intellectual abilities (e.g., ability to articulate ideas) 智力能力(例如，表达想法的能力)
• Knowledge (e.g., understand field, but not wed to paradigms) 知识(例如，理解领域，但不与范式结合)
• Style of thinking (e.g., choose to think in novel ways) 思维方式(例如，选择以新颖的方式思考)
• Personality (e.g., confidence in own capabilities) 个性(例如，对自己能力的信心)
• Motivation (e.g., rely on intrinsic motivation) 动机(例如，依赖内在动机)
• Environment (e.g., support and rewards for creative ideas) 环境(例如，对创意的支持和奖励)

Basic research

Research targeted at increasing scientific knowledge for its own sake. It may or may not have any long-term commercial application.

研究的目的是为了增加科学知识。它可能有也可能没有任何长期的商业应用

aims at increasing understanding of a topic or field without an immediate commercial application in mind.

旨在增加对主题或领域的理解，而不考虑立即的商业应用。

Applied research 应用研究

Research targeted at increasing knowledge for a specific application or need.

以增加特定应用或需求的知识为目标的研究。

aims at increasing understanding of a topic or field to meet a specific need.

旨在增进对某一主题或领域的理解，以满足特定需求。

Development

Development refers to activities that apply knowledge to produce useful devices, materials, or processes

开发是指运用知识生产有用的设备、材料或过程的活动

Complementors 补充者，互补公司(销售与其他公司的产品或服务相辅相成的产品或服务的公司。)

Producers of complementary goods or services (e.g., for video game console producers such as Sony or Nintendo, game developers) are complementors.

互补性商品或服务的生产者(例如，索尼或任天堂等视频游戏机生产商，游戏开发商)是互补性的。

Absorptive capacity 吸收能力

The ability of an organization to recognize, assimilate, and utilize new knowledge.

组织识别、吸收和利用新知识的能力。

TTO: Technology transfer offices 技术转移办公室：负责管理和促进大学或研究机构的技术转移和商业化的部门。

Offices designed to facilitate the transfer of technology developed in a research environment to an environment where it can be commercially applied

为促进将在研究环境中开发的技术转移到可以进行商业应用的环境而设计的办事处

Collaborations include (but are not limited to): 合作包括(但不限于):

• Joint ventures 合资企业：由两个或多个公司共同组建的企业，旨在共同开展特定的商业活动或项目。
• Licensing and second-sourcing agreements 许可和二次采购协议
• Research associations 研究协会：由一群研究人员组成的组织，旨在促进某个特定领域的研究和发展。
• Government-sponsored joint research programs 政府资助的联合研究项目
• Value-added networks for technical and scientific exchange 科技交流增值网络
• Informal networks 非正式网络

Technology Clusters

Technology Clusters are regional clusters of firms that have a connection to a common technology, may work with the same suppliers, customers, or complements

技术集群是指拥有共同技术的区域性企业集群，它们可能与相同的供应商、客户或互补企业合作

Technological spillovers 技术外溢 (have not found in PPT yet)

A positive externality from R&D resulting from the spread of knowledge across organizational or regional boundaries

由跨组织或区域边界的知识传播而产生的研发的正外部性

C3

technology trajectory 技术轨道

The path a technology follows through time is termed its technology trajectory.

一项技术在时间上遵循的路径被称为它的技术轨迹。

Many consistent patterns have been observed in technology trajectories, helping us understand how technologies improve and are diffused

在技术轨迹中观察到许多一致的模式，帮助我们理解技术是如何改进和扩散的

Technology trajectories are most often used to represent the technology’s rate of performance improvement or its rate of adoption in the marketplace

技术轨迹最常用于表示技术的性能改进速度或其在市场中的采用率

Four of the dimensions most commonly used to categorize innovations are described here: 下面描述了最常用于对创新进行分类的四个维度:

Product innovation versus Process innovation

产品创新与工艺创新

Radical Innovation versus Incremental Innovation

激进创新与渐进式创新

Competence-Enhancing Innovation versus Competence-Destroying Innovation

能力增强型创新与能力破坏型创新

Architectural Innovation versus Component Innovation

架构创新与组件创新

Radical innovation（Not the original content of PPT）

An innovation that is very new and different from prior solutions,that is, "new for the world”

Incremental innovation（Not the original content of PPT）

An innovation that makes a relative minor change from exsiting practices, that is, “do better than what we already do”

Technological innovations

based on specific technology, invention, discovery

基于特定的技术，发明，发现

Non-Technological innovations

Service innovation, Business Model innovation

服务创新，商业模式创新

Social innovations

in critical historic periods more important than technological ones (mail, educational systém, social systém, healthcare, …

在比技术更重要的关键历史时期(邮政、教育系统、社会系统、医疗保健、…

competence-enhancing innovation(Have not found in PPT yet)

An innovation that build on the existing knowledge and skills

以现有知识和技能为基础的创新

competence-destroying innovation(Have not found in PPT yet)

An innovation that renders obsolete the existing knowledge and skills

使现有的知识和技能过时的革新

Innovation categories

sustaining innovation 维持性创新

better products that can be sold with higher margin to demanding customers; incumbents win

更好的产品，可以以更高的利润率卖给要求高的客户;现任者获胜

disruptive innovation 颠覆性创新

commercialization of simpler, more userfriendly products, which are cheaper and targeted to new or less demanding customers; new entrants win

将更简单、更易于使用的产品商业化，这些产品更便宜，针对新的或要求较低的客户;新进入者胜出

Open/closed innovation

Chapter3 PPT P33-34 表格

Technology S-Curves

Both the rate of a technology’s improvement, and its rate of diffusion to the market typically follow an s-shaped curve.

一项技术的改进速度及其向市场扩散的速度通常都遵循s形曲线。

When a technology’s performance is plotted against the amount of effort and money invested in the technology, it typically shows slow initial improvement, then accelerated improvement, then diminishing improvement.

当一项技术的性能与投入该技术的努力和金钱进行对比时，它通常会显示出缓慢的初始改进，然后加速改进，然后递减改进。

discontinuous technology 不连续性技术

A discontinuous technology fulfills a similar market need by means of an entirely new knowledge base.

一个不连续的技术通过一个全新的知识库来满足类似的市场需求。

Technological discontinuity may initially have lower performance than incumbent technology

技术不连续性最初可能比现有技术具有更低的性能

Technology diffusion 技术扩散

Technology diffusion means the spread of a technology through a population.

技术扩散是指一种技术在人群中传播。

Technology cycles

Technological change tends to be cyclical:

技术变革往往是周期性的:

• Each new s-curve ushers in an initial period of turbulence, followed by rapid improvement, then diminishing returns, and ultimately is displaced by a new technological discontinuity. 每一条新的s曲线都会带来最初的动荡时期，随后是快速改善，然后是收益递减，最终被新的技术不连续所取代。
• Utterback and Abernathy（1993）characterized the technology cycle into two phases: Utterback和Abernathy(1993)将技术周期分为两个阶段:
  • The fluid phase(when there is considerable uncertainty about the technology and its market; firms experiment with different product designs in this phase) 流体阶段(该技术及其市场存在相当大的不确定性);公司在这一阶段尝试不同的产品设计)
  • After a dominant design emerges, the specific phasebegins (when firms focus on incremental improvements to the design and manufacturing efficiency). 在主导设计出现后，特定阶段开始(当公司专注于设计和制造效率的增量改进时)。

Dominant design 主导设计

Dominant design, refers to a product design that is adopted by the majority of producers, typically creating a stable architecture on which the industry can focus its efforts.

主导设计，指的是被大多数生产商采用的产品设计，通常是创造一个稳定的架构，让行业可以集中精力。

A dominant design always rose to command the majority of market share unless the next discontinuity arrived too early.

一个占主导地位的设计总是能够占据大部分市场份额，除非下一个不连续性过早到来

C4

Learning Effects

The more a technology is adopted, the more it is developed and the more effective and efficient it becomes.

一项技术被采用得越多，它就越发达，越有效和高效。

• Revenue generation for reinvestment on further developing in technology 为进一步发展技术的再投资创造收入
• Experience and knowledge accumulation 经验和知识的积累

Absorptive Capacity

Absorptive Capacity refers to the phenomenon whereby as individuals or firms learn, they also increase their future ability to learn. The ability of an organization to recognize, assimilate, and utilize new knowledge

吸收能力是指个人或企业在学习的同时，也在提高未来的学习能力。组织识别、吸收和利用新知识的能力

increasing return

When the rate of return(not just gross returns) from a product or process increases with the size of its installed base

当产品或工艺的回报率(不仅仅是总回报率)随着其安装基础的规模而增加时

Network Externalities (network effects, positive consumption externalities) 网络外部性(网络效应，正消费外部性)

the value of a good to a user increases with the number of other users of the same or similar good. Also termed positive consumption externalities, this is when the value of a good to a user increases with the number of other users of the same or similar good

一种商品对一个用户的价值会随着拥有相同或类似商品的其他用户数量的增加而增加。也被称为正消费外部性，这是当一种商品对用户的价值随着相同或类似商品的其他用户数量的增加而增加时

Direct network externalities

the utility of a product to each user in a network depends on the number of users.

产品对网络中每个用户的效用取决于用户的数量。

Indirect network externalities

a positive link between the utility to a customer and the number of other users of the product by expanding the range of complementary products.

通过扩大补充产品的范围，在对客户的效用和产品的其他用户数量之间建立积极的联系

Network externality value

Network externality value is a function of the size of the installed base and the availability of complementary goods.

网络外部性价值是已安装基础规模和补充商品可用性的函数。

• a)The size of the technology’s installed base 该技术安装基础的大小
• b)The availability of complementary goods 补充商品的可得性

installed base

The number of users of a particular technology is often referred to as its installed base

一项特定技术的用户数量通常被称为其安装基数

complementary goods 互补商品：在使用或消费过程中与其他商品相互补充的商品。

additional good and service that enable or enhance the value of another good.

额外的商品和服务，使另一种商品的价值得以实现或提高。

Path dependency

when end results depend greatly on the events that took place leading up to the outcome. It is often impossible to reproduce the results that occur in such a situation

当最终结果在很大程度上取决于导致结果的事件时。在这种情况下发生的结果通常是不可能重现的

Increasing returns to adoption also imply that technology trajectories are characterized by path dependency

采用的递增收益也意味着技术轨迹具有路径依赖的特征

Natural monopolies 自然垄断：在特定产业中，由于某些自然条件或技术限制，只有一个企业能够高效率地提供产品或服务，并且其他企业很难进入该市场与之竞争。

the majority of the market is dominated by a single (or few) design(s)

大多数市场都是由单一(或少数)设计主导的。

Buyer Utility Map 买方实用工具地图

Chan Kim and Renee Mauborgne developed the “Buyer Utility Map” to help managers determine what aspects of a new technology will be valued by potential customers (e.g. the functions it enables the customer to perform, its aesthetic qualities, its ease of use, etc.). They recommend considering six utility levers and the six stages of a buyers experience cycle (purchase, delivery, use, supplements, maintenance, and disposal) in order to fully understand a new technologies standalone value to a customer. Of course, each benefit has to be considered in light of its cost.

Chan Kim和Renee Mauborgne开发了“买家效用图”来帮助经理确定一项新技术的哪些方面将被潜在客户所重视(例如，它使客户能够执行的功能，它的美学质量，它的易用性等)。他们建议考虑六个效用杠杆和购买者体验周期的六个阶段(购买、交付、使用、补充、维护和处理)，以充分理解一项新技术对客户的独立价值。当然，每一项效益都必须根据其成本来考虑。

C5

First movers

First movers are the first entrants to sell in a new product or service category (“pioneers”).

先行者是指销售新产品或服务类别的第一批进入者(“先行者”)。

Early followers

Early followers are early to market but not the first.

早期的追随者是最早进入市场的，但不是第一个。

Late entrants

Late entrants do not enter the market until the product begins to penetrate the mass market or later.

在产品开始进入大众市场或之后，后进者才进入市场。

incumbent inertia 现任惯性

The tendency for incumbents to be slow to respond to changes in the industry environment due to their large size, established routines, or prior strategic commitments to existing suppliers and customers. 现有企业由于规模大、惯例或对现有供应商和客户的战略承诺而对行业环境变化反应迟缓的趋势。

Parallel development process 并行开发过程

Parallel development process means When multiple stages of the new product development process occur simultaneously.

并行开发过程是指新产品开发过程的多个阶段同时发生。

C6

Oligopolistic industries 寡头垄断行业

Highly consolidated industries with a few large competitors.

高度整合的行业，只有少数大型竞争对手。

Exit barriers 退出壁垒

Costs or other commitments that make it difficult for firms to abandon an industry (large fixed-asset investments, emotional commitment to the industry, etc.).

使企业难以放弃某一行业的成本或其他承诺(大型固定资产投资、对该行业的情感承诺等)。

Switching costs 转换成本

【转换成本：指消费者从一个产品或服务切换到另一个产品或服务所需承担的成本，包括时间、金钱和精力等方面的投入。】

Factors that make it difficult or expensive to change suppliers or buyers, such as investments in specialized assets to work with a particular supplier or buyer.

使更换供应商或买家变得困难或昂贵的因素，例如与特定供应商或买家合作的专业资产投资。

Vertical integration 垂直整合

【垂直整合：将制造业务与原材料来源和/或分销渠道在单一所有权或管理下进行整合，特别是为了最大化利润。】

Getting into the business of one’s suppliers (backward vertical integration) or one’s buyers (forward vertical integration). For example, a firm that begins producing its own supplies has practiced backward vertical integration, and a firm that buys its distributor has practiced forward vertical integration.

进入供应商(后向垂直整合)或买家(前向垂直整合)的业务。例如，一家开始生产自己的供应品的公司实行了向后垂直整合，而一家收购经销商的公司实行了向前垂直整合

Substitutes 替代品

Substitutes are products or services that are not considered competitors, but fulfill a strategically equivalent role for the customer.

替代品是不被认为是竞争对手的产品或服务，但在战略上对客户起着同等的作用。

Stakeholder 利益相关者

Any entity that has an interest (“stake”) in the organization.

在组织中有利益(“利害关系”)的任何实体。

Stakeholders include (but are not limited to) stockholders, employees, customers, suppliers, lenders, the local community, government, and rivals

利益相关者包括(但不限于)股东、员工、客户、供应商、贷款人、当地社区、政府和竞争对手

不可模仿的三种资源

Tacit resources 隐性资源

Resources of an intangible nature (such as knowledge) that cannot be readily codified.

具有无形性质的资源(如知识)，不能轻易编纂。

Socially complex resources 社会复杂资源

Resources or activities that emerge through the interaction of multiple individuals.

通过多个个体的相互作用而产生的资源或活动。

Causal ambiguity 因果歧义

The relationship between a resource and the outcome it produces is poorly understood.

资源和它产生的结果之间的关系不太清楚。

Core Rigidities 核心僵化

The Risk of Core Rigidities is faced by firms when they focus on current capabilities and do not develop new ones. Sometimes the very things that a firm excels at can enslave it, making the firm rigid and overly committed to inappropriate skills and resources.

当企业专注于现有能力而不开发新能力时，就会面临核心僵化的风险。有时候，一家公司擅长的事情可能会奴役它，使公司变得僵化，过度投入不合适的技能和资源。

Strategic Intent 战略意图

A long-term goal that is ambitious, builds upon and stretches firm’s core competencies, and draws from all levels of the organization.

一个雄心勃勃的长期目标，建立和扩展了公司的核心竞争力，并从组织的各个层面汲取经验。

Strategic intent provides clarity, brings about focus, and inspires the people.

战略意图提供了清晰度，带来了焦点，并激励了人们。

C7

Capital rationing 资本配给

The allocation of a finite quantity of resources over different possible uses.

将有限数量的资源分配给不同的可能用途。

Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Methods 折现现金流(DCF)方法

【折现现金流：根据未来的成本和收益进行计算，然后将这个数字减少到现在的价值，从而确定一项投资、公司或项目现在的价值。】

Net Present Value(NPV) 净现值

【净现值：指在扣除原始投资成本后，投资未来净现金流的现值（即未来现金流的差额）。】

Expected cash inflows are discounted and compared to outlays.

预期现金流入被折现并与支出进行比较。

Internal Rate of Return(IRR) 内部收益率

【内部收益率：特定投资每年平均赚取的金额，通过将每年赚取的金额与最初投资金额进行比较来计算。】

The discount rate that makes the net present value of investment zero.

使投资净现值为零的折现率。

Discounted payback period 折现回收期

【贴现回收期：贴现回收期是指项目的初始成本与预期现金流的贴现值相等所需的时间（以年为单位），或者是投资回本的时间。它是项目累计净现值等于零的时间段。】

The time required to break even on a project using discounted cash flows.

使用折现现金流实现项目收支平衡所需的时间。

Real Options 实物期权

Applies stock option model to nonfinancial resource investments.

将股票期权模型应用于非金融资源投资。

【实物期权：实物期权估值，也经常被称为实物期权分析，将期权估值技术应用于资本预算决策。实物期权本身是指有权利但无义务进行某些商业举措，例如推迟、放弃、扩大、分阶段或缩减资本投资项目。例如，实物期权估值可以研究投资于公司工厂扩张的机会以及出售工厂的替代选择。】

discounted payback period 折现回收期

【贴现回收期：贴现回收期是指项目的初始成本与预期现金流的贴现值相等所需的时间（以年为单位），或者是投资回本的时间。它是项目累计净现值等于零的时间段。】

the time required to break even on the project using discounted cash flows

使用折现现金流实现项目收支平衡所需的时间

Screening Questions 筛选问题

Assess different dimensions of the project decision

评估项目决策的不同维度

The Aggregate Project Planning Framework 项目总体规划框架

Emphasizes balance of different types of projects and their match to resource availability, cash flow needs, etc.

强调不同类型项目的平衡以及它们与资源可用性、现金流需求等的匹配。

Q-Sort Q分类

ranks projects on a variety of dimensions.

在各种维度上对项目进行排名。

Advanced R&D Projects 先进研发项目

develop cutting-edge technologies; often no immediate commercial application; take a long time to pay off (or may not pay off at all), but can position the firm to be a technological leader.

开发前沿技术;通常没有立即的商业应用;需要很长时间才能获得回报(或者可能根本没有回报)，但可以使公司成为技术领导者。

Breakthrough Projects 突破性项目

incorporate revolutionary new technologies into a commercial application.

将革命性的新技术纳入商业应用。

Platform Projects 平台项目

not revolutionary, but offer fundamental improvements over preceding generations of products.

不是革命性的，但对前几代产品提供了根本性的改进。

Derivative Projects 衍生项目

incremental improvements and variety in design features. These projects pay off the quickest, and help service the firm’s short-term cash flow needs

渐进式改进和设计特征的多样性。这些项目回报最快，并有助于满足公司的短期现金流需求

Conjoint Analysis 联合分析

a family of techniques enabling the relative importance of product attributes to be derived statistically.

一组技术，使产品属性的相对重要性可以统计出来。

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) 数据包络分析(DEA)

facilitates the comparison of projects using multiple criteriaand different kinds of measurement unitsbased on a linear programming.

在线性规划的基础上，使用多种标准和不同类型的测量单位，便于对项目进行比较。

Efficiency frontier 效率边界

the range of hypothetical configurations that optimize a combination of features. 优化特征组合的假设配置范围。

Scoring Models 评分模型

scores and ranks projects using criteria system and quantifying mechanism.

采用标准体系和量化机制对项目进行评分和排名。

C8

Joint venture 合资企业

A partnership between two or more firms involving a significant equity stake by the partners and often resulting in the creation of a new business entity.

两家或多家公司之间的合伙关系，合伙人持有大量股权，通常导致新企业实体的成立。

Capability complementation 功能互补

Combining (“pooling”) the capabilities and other resources of partner firms, but not necessarily transferring those resources between the partners.

联合(“汇集”)合伙人公司的能力和其他资源，但不一定在合伙人之间转移这些资源。

Capability transfer 能力转移

Exchange of capabilities across firms in such a manner that partners can internalize the capabilities and use them independently of the particular development project.

以这样一种方式在公司之间交换能力，合作伙伴可以内化这些能力，并独立于特定的开发项目使用它们。

Licensing 许可

Licensing is a contractual arrangement whereby one organization or individual (the licensee) obtains the rights to use the proprietary technology (or trademark, copyright, etc.) of another organization or individual (the licensor).Licensing enables a firm to rapidly acquire a technology (or other resource or capability) it does not possess.

许可是一种合同安排，一个组织或个人(被许可方)获得使用另一个组织或个人(许可方)的专有技术(或商标、版权等)的权利。许可使公司能够迅速获得它所不具备的技术(或其他资源或能力)。

Outsourcing 外包

An organization (or individual) procures services or products from another rather than producing them in-house.

一个组织(或个人)从另一个组织采购服务或产品，而不是在内部生产。

Partner Selection的factor

resource fit 资源契合

Resource fit refers to the degree to which potential partners have resources that can be effectively integrated into a strategy that creates value. Such resources may be either complementary or supplementary. Most collaborations are motivated by the need to access resources the firm does not possess; such collaborations are based on the combination of complementary resources.

资源匹配指的是潜在合作伙伴拥有的资源能够有效地整合到创造价值的战略中的程度。这种资源可以是补充的，也可以是补充的。大多数合作的动机是需要获得公司不拥有的资源;这种合作以互补资源的结合为基础。

strategic fit 战略契合：指两家公司在合并中的适合程度。

Strategic fit refers to the degree to which partners have compatible objectives and styles. The objectives of the partners need not be the same as long as the objectives can be achieved without harming the alliance or the partners. Not knowing a partner’s true objectives or forging an alliance with a partner with incompatible objectives can result in conflict, wasted resources, and forfeited opportunities.

战略契合指的是合作伙伴的目标和风格兼容的程度。合作伙伴的目标不必相同，只要目标可以在不损害联盟或合作伙伴的情况下实现。不了解合作伙伴的真正目标或与目标不相容的合作伙伴结盟可能导致冲突、资源浪费和丧失机会。

C9

Appropriability 独占性

The degree to which a firm is able to capture the rents from its innovation.

企业能够从其创新中获取租金的程度。

Tacit knowledge 默知

【默知：通过个人经验获得的知识，而不是通过教育或书籍等途径获得的知识。】

Knowledge that cannot be readily codified or transferred in written form.

不能轻易编纂或以书面形式转移的知识。

A firm’s unique prior experience or talent pool may give it a foundation of technical know-how that its competitors do not possess.

一家公司之前独特的经验或人才库可能会给它提供竞争对手所不具备的技术知识基础。

Socially complex Knowledge 社会复杂知识

Knowledge that arises from the interaction of multiple individuals.

从多个个体的互动中产生的知识。

Patent 专利

A patent protects an invention.

专利保护发明。

• A property right protecting a process, machine, manufactured item (or design for manufactured item), or variety of plant. 保护工艺、机器、制成品(或制成品的设计)或各种设备的产权。

Trademark 商标

A trademark protects words or symbols intended to distinguish the source of a good.

商标保护用来区分商品来源的文字或符号。

• An indicator used to distinguish the source of a good. 指示用来区分商品来源

Copyright 版权

A copyright protects an original artistic or literary work.

版权保护原创的艺术或文学作品。

• A property right protecting works of authorship. 保护作者作品的财产权。

Trade Secrets 商业机密

Trade Secret: information that belongs to a business that is generally unknown to others.

商业秘密:属于某一企业而一般不为他人所知的信息。

• Firm can protect proprietary product or process as trade secret without disclosing detailed information that would be required in patent. 企业可以保护专有产品或工艺作为商业秘密，而无需披露专利所要求的详细信息。
• Enables broad class of assets and activities to be protectable. 使广泛的资产和活动类别得到保护。

Wholly proprietary systems 完全专有系统

Goods based on technology that is owned and vigorously protected through patents, copyrights, secrecy, or other mechanisms. Wholly proprietary technologies may be legally produced and augmented only by their developers.

以技术为基础的产品，通过专利、版权、保密或其他机制得到有力保护。完全专有的技术只能由其开发者合法生产和扩展。

Wholly open systems 完全开放系统

Goods based on technology that is not protected and that is freely available for production or augmentation by other producers.

以不受保护的技术为基础的、可由其他生产者自由生产或改进的商品。

C10

Formalization 正规化/形式化

The degree to which the firm utilizes rules procedures, and written documentation to structure the behavior of individuals or groups within the organization.

公司运用规则、程序和书面文件来组织内部个人或团体行为的程度。

Standardization 标准化

The degree to which activities are performed in a uniform manner.

活动以统一的方式进行的程度。

Centralization 集中化

The degree to which decision-making authority is kept at top levels of the firm

决策权掌握在公司高层的程度

Decentralization 非集权化

The degree to which decision-making authority is pushed down to lower levels of the firm.

决策权下放到公司较低层次的程度。

Mechanistic structure 机械式结构

The combination of formalization and standardization results in what is often termed a mechanistic structure.

形式化和标准化的结合产生了通常被称为机械结构的结构。

• An organization structure characterized by a high degree of formalization and standardization, causing operations to be almost automatic or mechanical. 一种以高度形式化和标准化为特征的组织结构，使操作几乎自动化或机械化。

Organic structures 有机结构

An organization structure characterized by a low degree of formalization and standardization. Employees may not have well-defined job responsibilities and operations may be characterized by a high degree of variation.

正规化和标准化程度较低的组织结构。员工可能没有明确的工作职责，操作可能具有高度变化的特征。

Ambidextrous organization

An ambidextrous organization is a firm with a complex organizational form that is composed of multiple internally inconsistent architectures that can collectively achieve both short-term efficiency and long-term innovation.

二元性组织是指具有复杂组织形式的公司，该组织由多个内部不一致的架构组成，这些架构可以共同实现短期效率和长期创新。

In other words, the ability of an organization to behave almost as two different kinds of companies at once. Different divisions of the firm may have different structures and control systems, enabling them to have different cultures and patterns of operations.

换句话说，一个组织同时表现为两种不同类型公司的能力。公司的不同部门可能有不同的结构和控制系统，使他们有不同的文化和经营模式。

Skunk Works 臭鼬工厂/秘密研发小组/项目

Skunk Works is a term that originated with a division of Lockheed Martin that was formed in June of 1943 to quickly develop a jet fighter for the United States Army. It has evolved as skunk works to refer more generally to new product development teams that operate nearly autonomously from the parent organization, with considerable decentralization of authority and little bureaucracy.

臭鼬工厂/秘密研发小组/项目(Skunk Works)这个词起源于洛克希德·马丁公司(Lockheed Martin)的一个部门，该部门成立于1943年6月，目的是为美国陆军快速开发一种喷气式战斗机。它已经演变为臭鼬工作，更广泛地指新产品开发团队，这些团队几乎独立于母公司运作，具有相当大的权力分散和很少的官僚主义。

Modularity 模块化

Modularity refers to the degree to which a system’s components can be separated and recombined.

模块化指的是系统组件可以分离和重组的程度。

loosely coupled organizational structures

When products are made more modular, it enables the entire production system to be made more modular. The standard interfaces reduce the amount of coordination that must take place between the developers of different components, freeing them to pursue more flexible arrangements than the typical organizational hierarchy.

当产品变得更加模块化时，它使整个生产系统变得更加模块化。标准接口减少了不同组件的开发人员之间必须进行的协调，使他们能够追求比典型的组织层次结构更灵活的安排。

Such flexible arrangements are referred to as “loosely coupled organizational structures.”

这种灵活的安排被称为“松散耦合的组织结构”。

C13

The “freemium”model 免费增值商业模式

A pricing model where a base product or service is offered for free, but a premium is charged for additional features or service. 免费提供基本产品或服务，但对附加功能或服务收取额外费用的定价模式。

四种Intermediaries 中间商

Manufacturers’ representatives 制造商代表

independent agents that may promote and sell the product lines of one or a few manufacturers.

可以推广和销售一个或几个制造商的产品线的独立代理人。

• Useful for direct selling when it’s impractical for manufacturer to have own direct sales force for all markets. 当制造商在所有市场都拥有自己的直销队伍是不切实际的时候，这对直销很有用。

Wholesalers 批发商

firms that buy manufacturer’s products in bulk then resell them (typically in smaller, more diverse bundles)

批量购买制造商产品然后转售的公司(通常以更小、更多样化的捆绑销售)

• Provide bulk breaking and carry inventory. 提供散装拆装和搬运库存。
• Handles transactions with retailers and provides transportation. 处理与零售商的交易并提供运输服务。

Retailers 零售商

firms that sell goods to public

向公众销售商品的公司

• Provide convenience for customers 为客户提供便利
• Enable on-site examination and service 能够进行现场检查和服务

Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) 原始设备制造商(oem)

A company that buys products (or components) from other manufacturers and assembles them or customizes them and sells under its own brand name. E.g., Dell Computer

从其他制造商那里购买产品(或部件)并进行组装或定制并以自己的品牌销售的公司。例如，戴尔电脑公司

• Aggregates components from multiple manufacturers 聚合来自多个制造商的组件
• Provides single point-of-contact and service for customer 为客户提供单点接触和服务