Independent Variable & Dependent Variable

自变量(Independent Variable)  ----------->  因变量(Dependent Variable)

数据 ----------------------------------------------结果,报告等等

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1.概念 将数理统计学的理论和方法应用于教学实际、通过对所获得数据分析和处理,达到探索教学规律、制定方案、作出决策和预测。 2.性质 应用性:更重应用,不细究数理 方法性:只是工具,不负责研究何种现象、提出何种假设、结论是否正确等。 3.分类 描述统计(descriptive statistics) 描述数据全貌。包括数据分组,使用统计图表描述数据的分组和分布,计算数据参数 。 推断统计(inferential statistics) 依据随机样本数据,从局部推断总体特征。包括参数检验和非参数检验、方差分析、回归分析、因子分析等。 4.基本概念 4.1变量(variable) 研究活动中的关键因素。相对于常量而言(在研究过程中始终保持不变的特征或条件)。 自变量(independent variable):教学方法 因变量(dependent variable):学生成绩 中间变量(interdependent variable):学习风格 如:研究者经常在课题的研究对象(某一层次的学习者)中安排不同风格的学习者。当某个自变量(如教学方式)变化时,可以观测到因变量(学习成绩)的相应变化及其规律。然后针对不同学习风格的研究对象(中间变量),再观察上述教学现象规律有何变化 。 4.基本概念 4.2总体(population)、个体(individual)、样本(sample) 研究对象的全体为总体,组成总体的基本单元为个体,按照一定规则从总体中抽取的一部分个体为样本。 4.3样本容量(sample size) 无严格的数量界限。一般把样本容量小于30(50、100)的样本称为小样本,大于等于30(50、100)的为大样本。
Teach Yourself Electricity & Electronics<br><br>Part 1 Direct current<br>1 Basic physical concepts 3<br>Atoms 3<br>Protons, neutrons, and the atomic number 4<br>Isotopes and atomic weights 4<br>Electrons 5<br>Ions 5<br>Compounds 9<br>Molecules 10<br>Conductors 11<br>Insulators 11<br>Resistors 13<br>Semiconductors 14<br>Current 15<br>Static electricity 15<br>Electromotive force 16<br>Nonelectrical energy 18<br>Quiz 19<br>2 Electrical units 23<br>The volt 23<br>Current flow 24<br>The ampere 26<br>Resistance and the ohm 26<br>Conductance and the siemens 28<br>vii<br><br>viii Contents<br>Power and the watt 29<br>Energy and the watt hour 31<br>Other energy units 33<br>ac Waves and the hertz 34<br>Rectification and fluctuating direct current 35<br>Safety considerations in electrical work 37<br>Magnetism 38<br>Magnetic units 39<br>Quiz 40<br>3 Measuring devices 44<br>Electromagnetic deflection 44<br>Electrostatic deflection 46<br>Thermal heating 47<br>Ammeters 48<br>Voltmeters 49<br>Ohmmeters 51<br>Multimeters 53<br>FET and vacuum-tube voltmeters 54<br>Wattmeters 54<br>Watt-hour meters 55<br>Digital readout meters 56<br>Frequency counters 57<br>Other specialized meter types 57<br>Quiz 60<br>4 Basic dc circuits 65<br>Schematic symbols 65<br>Schematic diagrams 67<br>Wiring diagrams 68<br>Voltage/current/resistance circuit 68<br>Ohm’s Law 69<br>Current calculations 69<br>Voltage calculations 71<br>Resistance calculations 71<br>Power calculations 72<br>Resistances in series 73<br>Resistances in parallel 74<br>Division of power 75<br>Resistances in series-parallel 75<br>Resistive loads in general 77<br>Quiz 77<br>5 Direct-current circuit analysis 82<br>Current through series resistances 82<br>Voltages across series resistances 83<br><br>Contents ix<br>Voltage across parallel resistances 85<br>Currents through parallel resistances 86<br>Power distribution in series circuits 88<br>Power distribution in parallel circuits 88<br>Kirchhoff’s first law 89<br>Kirchhoff’s second law 91<br>Voltage divider networks 92<br>Quiz 95<br>6 Resistors 99<br>Purpose of the resistor 99<br>The carbon-composition resistor 102<br>The wirewound resistor 103<br>Film type resistors 104<br>Integrated-circuit resistors 104<br>The potentiometer 105<br>The decibel 107<br>The rheostat 109<br>Resistor values 110<br>Tolerance 110<br>Power rating 110<br>Temperature compensation 111<br>The color code 112<br>Quiz 114<br>7 Cells and batteries 118<br>Kinetic and potential energy 118<br>Electrochemical energy 118<br>Primary and secondary cells 119<br>The Weston standard cell 120<br>Storage capacity 120<br>Common dime-store cells and batteries 122<br>Miniature cells and batteries 124<br>Lead-acid cells and batteries 125<br>Nickel-cadmium cells and batteries 125<br>Photovoltaic cells and batteries 127<br>How large a battery? 128<br>Quiz 130<br>8 Magnetism 134<br>The geomagnetic field 134<br>Magnetic force 135<br>Electric charge in motion 136<br>Flux lines 136<br>Magnetic polarity 137<br>Dipoles and monopoles 139<br><br>x Contents<br>Magnetic field strength 139<br>Permeability 142<br>Retentivity 142<br>Permanent magnets 143<br>The solenoid 144<br>The dc motor 145<br>Magnetic data storage 146<br>Quiz 149<br>Test: Part 1 153<br>Part 2 Alternating current<br>9 Alternating current basics 165<br>Definition of alternating current 165<br>Period and frequency 165<br>The sine wave 167<br>The square wave 167<br>Sawtooth waves 167<br>Complex and irregular waveforms 169<br>Frequency spectrum 170<br>Little bits of a cycle 172<br>Phase difference 173<br>Amplitude of alternating current 173<br>Superimposed direct current 175<br>The ac generator 176<br>Why ac? 178<br>Quiz 178<br>10 Inductance 183<br>The property of inductance 183<br>Practical inductors 184<br>The unit of inductance 185<br>Inductors in series 185<br>Inductors in parallel 186<br>Interaction among inductors 187<br>Effects of mutual inductance 188<br>Air-core coils 189<br>Powdered-iron and ferrite cores 190<br>Permeability tuning 190<br>Toroids 190<br>Pot cores 192<br>Filter chokes 192<br>Inductors at audio frequency 193<br>Inductors at radio frequency 193<br>Transmission-line inductors 193<br><br>Contents xi<br>Unwanted inductances 195<br>Quiz 195<br>11 Capacitance 199<br>The property of capacitance 199<br>Practical capacitors 201<br>The unit of capacitance 201<br>Capacitors in series 202<br>Capacitors in parallel 203<br>Dielectric materials 204<br>Paper capacitors 204<br>Mica capacitors 205<br>Ceramic capacitors 205<br>Plastic-film capacitors 206<br>Electrolytic capcitors 206<br>Tantalum capacitors 206<br>Semiconductor capacitors 207<br>Variable capacitors 207<br>Tolerance 209<br>Temperature coefficient 210<br>Interelectrode capacitance 210<br>Quiz 211<br>12 Phase 215<br>Instantaneous voltage and current 215<br>Rate of change 216<br>Sine waves as circular motion 217<br>Degrees of phase 218<br>Radians of phase 221<br>Phase coincidence 221<br>Phase opposition 222<br>Leading phase 222<br>Lagging phase 224<br>Vector diagrams of phase relationships 225<br>Quiz 226<br>13 Inductive reactance 231<br>Coils and direct current 231<br>Coils and alternating current 232<br>Reactance and frequency 233<br>Points in the RL plane 234<br>Vectors in the RL plane 235<br>Current lags voltage 237<br>Inductance and resistance 238<br>How much lag? 240<br>Quiz 243<br><br>xii Contents<br>14 Capacitive reactance 247<br>Capacitors and direct current 247<br>Capacitors and alternating current 248<br>Reactance and frequency 249<br>Points in the RC plane 251<br>Vectors in the RC plane 253<br>Current leads voltage 254<br>How much lead? 256<br>Quiz 259<br>15 Impedance and admittance 264<br>Imaginary numbers 264<br>Complex numbers 265<br>The complex number plane 266<br>The RX plane 269<br>Vector representation of impedance 270<br>Absolute-value impedance 272<br>Characteristic impedance 272<br>Conductance 275<br>Susceptance 275<br>Admittance 276<br>The GB plane 277<br>Vector representation of admittance 279<br>Why all these different expressions? 279<br>Quiz 280<br>16 RLC circuit analysis 284<br>Complex impedances in series 284<br>Series RLC circuits 288<br>Complex admittances in parallel 289<br>Parallel GLC circuits 292<br>Converting from admittance to impedance 294<br>Putting it all together 294<br>Reducing complicated RLC circuits 295<br>Ohm’s law for ac circuits 298<br>Quiz 301<br>17 Power and resonance in ac circuits 305<br>What is power? 305<br>True power doesn’t travel 307<br>Reactance does not consume power 308<br>True power, VA power and reactive power 309<br>Power factor 310<br>Calculation of power factor 310<br>How much of the power is true? 313<br><br>Contents xiii<br>Power transmission 315<br>Series resonance 318<br>Parallel resonance 319<br>Calculating resonant frequency 319<br>Resonant devices 321<br>Quiz 323<br>18 Transformers and impedance matching 327<br>Principle of the transformer 327<br>Turns ratio 328<br>Transformer cores 329<br>Transformer geometry 330<br>The autotransformer 333<br>Power transformers 334<br>Audio-frequency transformers 336<br>Isolation transformers 336<br>Impedance-transfer ratio 338<br>Radio-frequency transformers 339<br>What about reactance? 341<br>Quiz 342<br>Test: Part 2 346<br>Part 3 Basic electronics<br>19 Introduction to semiconductors 359<br>The semiconductor revolution 359<br>Semiconductor materials 360<br>Doping 362<br>Majority and minority charge carriers 362<br>Electron flow 362<br>Hole flow 363<br>Behavior of a P-N junction 363<br>How the junction works 364<br>Junction capacitance 366<br>Avalanche effect 366<br>Quiz 367<br>20 Some uses of diodes 370<br>Rectification 370<br>Detection 371<br>Frequency multiplication 372<br>Mixing 373<br>Switching 374<br>Voltage regulation 374<br>Amplitude limiting 374<br><br>xiv Contents<br>Frequency control 376<br>Oscillation and amplification 377<br>Energy emission 377<br>Photosensitive diodes 378<br>Quiz 380<br>21 Power supplies 383<br>Parts of a power supply 383<br>The power transformer 384<br>The diode 385<br>The half-wave rectifier 386<br>The full-wave, center-tap rectifier 387<br>The bridge rectifier 387<br>The voltage doubler 389<br>The filter 390<br>Voltage regulation 392<br>Surge current 393<br>Transient suppression 394<br>Fuses and breakers 394<br>Personal safety 395<br>Quiz 396<br>22 The bipolar transistor 400<br>NPN versus PNP 400<br>NPN biasing 402<br>PNP biasing 404<br>Biasing for current amplification 404<br>Static current amplification 405<br>Dynamic current amplification 406<br>Overdrive 406<br>Gain versus frequency 407<br>Common-emitter circuit 408<br>Common-base circuit 409<br>Common-collector circuit 410<br>Quiz 411<br>23 The field-effect transistor 416<br>Principle of the JFET 416<br>N-channel versus P-channel 417<br>Depletion and pinchoff 418<br>JFET biasing 419<br>Voltage amplification 420<br>Drain current versus drain voltage 421<br>Transconductance 422<br>The MOSFET 422<br><br>Contents xv<br>Depletion mode versus enhancement mode 425<br>Common-source circuit 425<br>Common-gate circuit 426<br>Common-drain circuit 427<br>A note about notation 429<br>Quiz 429<br>24 Amplifiers 433<br>The decibel 433<br>Basic bipolar amplifier circuit 437<br>Basic FET amplifier circuit 438<br>The class-A amplifier 439<br>The class-AB amplifier 440<br>The class-B amplifier 441<br>The class-C amplifier 442<br>PA efficiency 443<br>Drive and overdrive 445<br>Audio amplification 446<br>Coupling methods 447<br>Radio-frequency amplification 450<br>Quiz 453<br>25 Oscillators 457<br>Uses of oscillators 457<br>Positive feedback 458<br>Concept of the oscillator 458<br>The Armstrong oscillator 459<br>The Hartley circuit 459<br>The Colpitts circuit 461<br>The Clapp circuit 461<br>Stability 463<br>Crystal-controlled oscillators 464<br>The voltage-controlled oscillator 465<br>The PLL frequency synthesizer 466<br>Diode oscillators 467<br>Audio waveforms 467<br>Audio oscillators 468<br>IC oscillators 469<br>Quiz 469<br>26 Data transmission 474<br>The carrier wave 474<br>The Morse code 475<br>Frequency-shift keying 475<br>Amplitude modulation for voice 478<br>Single sideband 480<br><br>xvi Contents<br>Frequency and phase modulation 482<br>Pulse modulation 485<br>Analog-to-digital conversion 487<br>Image transmission 487<br>The electromagnetic field 490<br>Transmission media 493<br>Quiz 495<br>27 Data reception 499<br>Radio wave propagation 499<br>Receiver specifications 502<br>Definition of detection 504<br>Detection of AM signals 504<br>Detection of CW signals 505<br>Detection of FSK signals 506<br>Detection of SSB signals 506<br>Detection of FM signals 506<br>Detection of PM signals 508<br>Digital-to-analog conversion 509<br>Digital signal processing 510<br>The principle of signal mixing 511<br>The product detector 512<br>The superheterodyne 515<br>A modulated-light receiver 517<br>Quiz 517<br>28 Integrated circuits and data storage media 521<br>Boxes and cans 521<br>Advantages of IC technology 522<br>Limitations of IC technology 523<br>Linear versus digital 524<br>Types of linear ICs 524<br>Bipolar digital ICs 527<br>MOS digital ICs 527<br>Component density 529<br>IC memory 530<br>Magnetic media 532<br>Compact disks 535<br>Quiz 535<br>29 Electron tubes 539<br>Vacuum versus gas-filled 539<br>The diode tube 540<br>The triode 541<br>Extra grids 542<br>Some tubes are obsolete 544<br><br>Contents xvii<br>Radio-frquency power amplifiers 544<br>Cathode-ray tubes 546<br>Video camera tubes 547<br>Traveling-wave tubes 549<br>Quiz 551<br>30 Basic digital principles 555<br>Numbering systems 555<br>Logic signals 557<br>Basic logic operations 559<br>Symbols for logic gates 561<br>Complex logic operators 561<br>Working with truth tables 562<br>Boolean algebra 564<br>The flip-flop 564<br>The counter 566<br>The register 567<br>The digital revolution 568<br>Quiz 568<br>Test: Part 3 572<br>Part 4 Advanced electronics and related technology<br>31 Acoustics, audio, and high fidelity 583<br>Acoustics 583<br>Loudness and phase 585<br>Technical considerations 587<br>Basic components 589<br>Other components 591<br>Specialized systems 596<br>Recorded media 597<br>Electromagnetic interference 601<br>Quiz 602<br>32 Wireless and personal communications systems 606<br>Cellular communications 606<br>Satellite systems 608<br>Acoustic transducers 612<br>Radio-frequency transducers 613<br>Infrared transducers 614<br>Wireless local area networks 615<br>Wireless security systems 616<br>Hobby radio 617<br>Noise 619<br>Quiz 620<br><br>xviii Contents<br>33 Computers and the Internet 624<br>The microprocessor and CPU 624<br>Bytes, kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes 626<br>The hard drive 626<br>Other forms of mass storage 628<br>Random-access memory 629<br>The display 631<br>The printer 633<br>The modem 635<br>The Internet 636<br>Quiz 640<br>34 Robotics and artificial intelligence 644<br>Asimov’s three laws 644<br>Robot generations 645<br>Independent or dependent? 646<br>Robot arms 648<br>Robotic hearing and vision 652<br>Robotic navigation 657<br>Telepresence 661<br>The mind of the machine 663<br>Quiz 665<br>Test: Part 4 669<br>Final exam 679<br>Appendices<br>A Answers to quiz, test, and exam questions 697<br>B Schematic symbols 707<br>Suggested additional reference 713<br>Index 715
Chapter 1, Practical Machine Learning with R, shows how to install and setup R environment, it covers package installation basic syntax and data types followed by reading and writing data from various sources. It also covers basic statistics and visualization using R. Chapter 2, Data Exploration with Air Quality Datasets, shows how actual data looks in R. It covers loading of data, exploring and visualizing the data. Chapter 3, Analyzing Time Series Data, shows a totally different type of data which consist of time factor. It covers how to handle time series in R. Chapter 4, R and Statistics, covers data sampling, probability distribution, univariate descriptive statistics, correlation, multivariate analysis, linear regression. Exact binomial test, student – t test, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, Wilcoxon Rank Sum and Signed Rank test, Pearson's Chi-squared Test, One-way ANOVA, and Two-way ANOVA. Chapter 5, Understanding Regression Analysis, introduces to the supervised learning, to analyze the relationship between dependent and independent variable. It covers different type of distribution model followed by generalized additive model. Chapter 6, Survival Analysis, shows how to analyze the data where the outcome variable is time for occurrence of an event, widely used in clinical trials. Chapter 7, Classification 1 – Tree, Lazy and Probabilistic, Tree, Lazy and Probabilistic, deals with classification model built from the training dataset, of which the categories are already known. Chapter 8, Classification 2 – Neural Network and SVM, shows how to train a support vector machine and neural network, how to visualize and tune the both. Chapter 9, Model Evaluation, shows to evaluate the performance of a fitted model. Chapter 10, Ensemble Learning, shows bagging and boosting to classify the data, perform the cross validation to estimate the error rate. It also covers the random forest. Chapter 11, Clustering, means grouping similar objects widely used in business applications.

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