【英语：基础进阶_原著扩展阅读】J5.阅读分析中的常用概念

1.FICTION & NONFICTION

/ˈfɪkʃn/ /nɑnˈfɪkʃən/
小说 & 非小说作品

在开始阅读时, 首先要明确文体的类别, 找到对应的阅读思路. 我们先来补充一下nonfiction的定义和分类.

1.1.FICTION & NONFICTION 小说与非小说

Nonfictionis prose writing based on fact.

非小说类的文体就是基于事实的写作.

虽然说基于事实的写作, 但是里面也会含有一些故事情节, 毕竟现实世界当中也是充满了各种各样的故事.

1.2.TYPES AND STRUCTURE OF NONFICTION 非小说类的文体的类型和结构

Longer-length Nonfiction

• Literary Nonfiction 文学类
  (uses the tools of literature to describe events in the real world)
• Biographies 传记
  (are accounts of a person’s life)
• Memoirs 回忆录
  (are a person’s own memories)

shorter-length Nonfiction

• Journalism 新闻写作
  (is writing intended to be published or broadcast by the news media,such as in magazines or newspapers,or on media websites or television.)
• Opinion Pieces 评论文章
  (share a person’s opinion about a topic.)
• Expositions 说明文
  (explain something)
• Arguments 论证文
  (state and defend a point of view)
• Essays 论文(短)
  (are short pieces of writing on a subject.)
• Personal Essays 个人随笔
  (have a loose structure and express a personal point of view.)
• Speeches 演讲
  (are written and then spoken to an audience.)
• Epistles 书信
  (,or letters, are written to a person and published later—either as a collection of letters or as a single letter.)

1.3.JOURNALISM 新闻类

/ˈdʒɜːrnəlɪzəm/

新闻类文体最主要的就是真实性.
Journalism aims to tell “the truth,the whole truth,and nothing but thetruth.”

这种文体当中, 新闻作者不能分享自己的观点或者对细节进行分析, 而是应该焦距于事件本身的真实情况. 一般较少使用文学性的修辞手法来营造drama戏剧性和tension紧张感. 新闻的书写需要将重点内容放在开头部分, 让读者用更快的时间了解真实事件.

Journalism also tends to be very matter-of-fact(就事论事的) in the way it’s written.

1.4.LITERARY NONFICTION 文学非小说

/ˈlɪtəreri/
有的时候, 新闻这种文体无法满足我们讲述故事的需要. 这时候就可以来使用这种文学类非小说的叙述方式. 这种文体和小说类的其实在写作方式上是相同的, 唯一的区别就是, 它讲述的是真实的故事.

1.5.BIOGRAPHY AND MEMOIR 传记和回忆录

/ baɪˈɑːɡrəfi/ /ˈmemwɑːr/
传记类和回忆录两种文体都是讲述与个人生活和经历相关的真实内容.

除了autography(自传), 传记的作者和写作的对象一般不是一致的. 传记作者可以通过对于传记写作对象的调研、采访等方式来完成作品.

回忆录的写法, 可以根据自己的经历详细地写出一个阶段的生活, 也可写一个侧面. 写作回忆录要注意文体的真实性, 就是真实记载作者的经历和观感.

1.6.NONFICTION 阅读分析

Depending on the genre of nonfiction, the same account can sound very different.

比如我们设置一个场景:

• 隔壁的双胞胎得到了第一台遥控飞机, 结果飞机莫名其妙地卡在了邻居的屋顶上.
• 看看我们如何使用不同的写作类型来描述这一场景.

1) Journalism

A remote-control model plane was found on the roof of the Millers’ home in Roosevelt Circle on Tuesday afternoon. Twins Jeffrey and Jessica Jones admitted to owning the plane, but claimed they had no knowledge of how it had arrived there.

文体特点:

• Puts the most important facts first
• Reports only what sources have said
• Leaves out any opinions or personal history of the author

2) Literary Nonfiction

A plane soared out of a vast and empty blue sky. For a breathtaking moment,it appeared to be on track to make a perfect landing on the lawn at the twins feet. But then it made a strange, lurching turn and came to a rest twostories over their heads,on the roof of the home of the Millers, their next-door neighbors.

文体特点:

• Uses PACING(节奏) to build tension
• Uses literary descriptive techniques.
• Treats the subjects as characters
• (PACING: the speed at which things happen, change, or develop in a text)

3) Biography

One of the formative moments of Jessica’s young life was the day that her model plane,on its inaugural flight, landed on the roof of her neighbors home. In later years, both Jessica and Jeffrey claimed that they had been the remote pilot of the errant plane. But nobody was ever sure why both were so eager to take responsibility for the crash-landing-or which one of them had actually had their hands on the controls.

文体特点:

• Refers to research and other sources
• Focuses on the whole life of one individual
• Uses a blend of journalistic and narrative style

4) Memoir

I knew that plane was flying too fast and too high. But Jeffrey wouldn’t listento me. Just like me,he’d never piloted a remote-control plane before. I think he just got carried away, because a minute later,it had plunged out of the sky and landed on the Millers’ roof. I guess I can tell the truth now, decades later. But Mom had already been threatening to send Jeffrey to boarding schoolif he got in any more trouble. I didn’t know what I’d do without him. So I saidl did it. He took responsibility,too.He tried to tell Mom that he was the one who did it. But I was so good at sticking to my lines,even back then that Mom couldn’t tell which one of us was telling the truth. So she grounded us both.But she didn’t send him away. I think that’s probably when I first knew I mighthave a future as an actress.

文体特点:

• Focuses on the memories of an individual
• Doesn’t refer to other research
• Personal, somewhat literary style

2.阅读分析常用概念

2.1.THEME 主题

/θiːm/

• A theme is the unifying idea in a piece of writing.

就类似我们小时候常分析的中心思想. 它与文章的topic(主题)不同, 而是关于作者是如何表达这个topic的. 它是贯穿整个作品的内核, 你会在作者写作的字里行间发现有关它的蛛丝马迹.

比如, 现在给定一个话题, 让五位不同的作者去完成作品.
Topic: Courage

• Author #1’ s theme: Having the courage to reach out for help.
• Author #2’s theme: Courage and telling the truth
• Author #3’ s theme: Getting the courage to start again
  . Author #4’s theme: Having the courage to stand up for yourself
  Author #5’s theme: Courage and following your dreams

我们可以看到对于同一个话题, 不同的作者想要表达的中心思想是有很大分别的.

在文章当中, 有一些在文学作品当中被反复使用的经典主体思想:

1. The importance of love and friendship
2. Dealing with loss
3. The importance of family
4. Learning to be a hero
5. What it means to grow up
6. The coexistence of good and bad in a person/the world

我们若想在阅读的时候找到作者想要表达的思想则需要将细节, 场景, 人物特点等因素进行综合考虑. 可以提几个这样的问题来辅助文章的阅读:

1. What topic/big question are the characters in this story struggling with?
2. How do different scenes in this story convey the same theme?
3. What details does the author use to represent the theme?

2.2.TONE 语气

/toʊn/

Tone(语气)是作者用来表达态度或者情绪时所使用的一种方式.

It is the way an author creates an attitude or mood in a piece of writing.

比如, 你不想和你爸去超市买东西, 你的语气可以用很多种:
With a polite tone:
“I’m sorry, Dad. I’ d rather not.”

With a whiny(发牢骚的) tone:
“Why do I always have to go to the store with you?”

With an angry tone:
“I’m not going to the store again !”

除了以上列举的三种, 文段当中的tone还常有以下的类别:

• optimistic 乐观的
• hurt 受伤的, 痛苦的
• compassionate 同情的, 怜悯的
• agitated激动的, 不安的
• questioning 怀疑的
• authoritative权威的
• hopeful 满怀希望的
• nervous 紧张的

如果能够读出作者写作时的语气, 你就可以更深一层的理解文章当中更多的元素. 事实上, 很多时候作者正是通过语气来传达写作的目的和中心思想.

2.3.TEXTUAL ANALYSIS AND EVIDENCE 文章分析

/ˈtekstʃuəl əˈnæləsɪs/ /ˈevɪdəns/

这个概念我们之前提到过, 这里再展开说明一下.

文章分析(textual analysis)就是分析文本中的证据(evidence: facts or information that prove something), 以便理解文章的意义. 这一类的evidence就是支撑你的分析(analysis)的信息要素.

There are two kinds of textual evidence—explicit(明确的, 清楚的) andimplicit(含蓄的, 不直接的)．

Explicit evidence is proof plainly stated in the text. It comes right out.
这种信息在文中会有非常明确的信息说明.

比如, 因为你没有按时清理自己的房间, 你爸很生气. 他说:
I am annoyed that you didn’t clean your room. I’ m getting pretty tired ofasking you to do it.
这就是一个explicit evidence.

Implicit evidence is evidence that is only implied by what is stated in the text.
相反的这种含蓄的信息不是直接在文中出现的, 需要通过自己从给出的信息当中去提取.

再如, 当你回家发现你爸皱着眉头, 在客厅里气鼓鼓地转来转去, 你可能会猜到:
Dad seems mad about something.
这就是你通过这种非直接的信息当中提取的分析.

此类的分析在我们平时做阅读理解时是非常重要的, 是你能读清楚文章的关键.

我们来看一个例子: “In Our Neighborhood,” by Alice Ruth Moore :

The Harts were going to give a party. Neither Mrs. Hart, nor the Misses Hart, nor the small and busy Harts who amused themselves and the neighborhood by continually falling in the gutter on special occasions, had mentioned this fact to anyone, but all the interested denizens of that particular square could tell by the unusual air of bustle and activity which pervaded the Hart domicile.

作者在这段文字当中没有提及任何有关Harts家族的成员透露出的聚会信息, 所以这都不是explicit evidence, 但是作者写了邻居们基于一些implicit evidence都在猜测他们家要开一个聚会, 他们似乎在为聚会做着准备.

When we make a guess based on explicit or implicit evidence, we’re drawing an inference.

Inference(推断, 推论) is a conclusion we draw based on evidence and reason.
大家在做阅读理解题目时, 经常会看到这个词, 所谓推论就是你从文章的当中获取了一些证据, 或者说事实的支撑从而得出的结论.

当然, 文章当中一般会存在很多evidence, 这时我们就需要去寻找the best evidence. 当你找寻最佳证据以得出结论的时候, 可以问自己这样一个问题:
Would everyone agree that this evidence leads to my conclusion?

2.4.AUTHORSHIP 作者身份

/ˈɔːθərʃɪp/

大家对于author的概念应该不陌生, 就是篇章的作者. 了解作者的背景和视角也是透彻分析文章不可缺少的一环.

Author Background and Perspective

每个作者都有不同的出身背景, 每个人的成长故事和经历都不一样. 了解作者的背景和视角也是透彻分析文章不可缺少的一环. 这一点不管在fiction和nonfiction类别当中都是行得通的. 特别是在回忆录, 自传和新闻评论文章这一类的作品中, 作者是一定会在写作当中表述出their own point of view(POV).

这些因素包含:

• Culture (the attitudes, knowledge, customs, beliefs, and objects that belong to a specific group of people)
• Historical period,or when the author was alive
• Location
• Personal experiences

下面的这些因素都可以影响到他们自身的观点:

1. What time in history was this author writing?
2. What is the author trying to convince you of as the reader?
3. What events in their upbringing personal life influenced their writingstyle and the evidence they chose to include?

每个作者都有自身写作的独特视角, 这种也使得阅读变得更加多元化, 增加了趣味性. 我们在阅读的时候需要去体会作品背后的角度和写作的目的.

先来看这个例子:
The author’s biographical background can affect his or her perspective, or the way an author sees the world, and the way he or she writes. Once we understand who the author is, we can understand more about why he or she wrote the piece in the first place.

比如, 有两个国家——蓝国和绿国, 蓝国入侵了绿国并且取得了完胜. 大家可以想一下, 如果是一位长在蓝国的诗人他写的自己的祖国是什么感觉的? 如果是长在绿国的一位剧作家, 他的笔下又会描绘出怎样的蓝国呢?
理解了因作者自身生长环境所带来的差异, 这样我们才能更客观的理解和分析文章.

再来看一个对比的例子大家来体会下.
下面两段文字都是关于riverboats的内容, 第一段是出自俄罗斯作家Maxim Gorky(玛克西姆·高尔基), 第二段是美国作家Mark Twain(马克·吐温)的一段演讲.

Firom “on a River Steamer,” by Maxim Gorky (1923):
The water of the river was smooth, and dull silver of tint. Also, so barely perceptible was the current that it seemed to be almost stagnant under the mist of the noontide heat, and only by the changes in the aspect of the banks could one realize how quietly and evenly the river was carrying on its surface the old yellow-hulled steamer with the white-rimmed funnel, and also the clumsy barge whi ch was being towed in her wake.
Dreamily did the floats of the paddle-wheels slap the water. Under the planks of the deck the engines toiled without ceasing. Steam hissed and panted. At intervals the engine-room bell jarred upon the car. At intervals, also, the tiller-chains slid to and fro with a dull, rattling sound. Yet,owing to the somnolent stillness settled upon the river, these sounds escaped, failed to draw one’s attention.

From Mark Twain’s speech on Fulton Day at Jamestown (1907) :
You probably do not know a great deal about that boat. It was the most important steamboat in the world. I was there and saw it. Admiral Harrington was there at the time. It need not surprise you, for he is not as old as he looks. That little boat was interesting in every way. The size of it… You see, the first and most important detail is the length, then the breadth, and then the breadth, and then the depth…Then her tonnage–you know nothing about a boat until you know two more things: her speed and her tonnage. We know the speed she made. She made four miles–and sometimes five miles. Now comes the tonnage of that boat. Tonnage of a boat means the amount of displacement; displacement means the amount of water a vessel can shove in a day.

两位作家都在描写关于steamboats的内容, 但是他们是从地球的两个距离遥远的角落分别完成作品的, 所以创造出了完全不同的视角.

我们来总结一下:
Gorky:

• Focuses on the river the boat
• Describes his sensory experiences
• Doesn’t find the boat very interesting

Twain:

• Focuses on the boat
• Describes the dimensions and technical abilities of the boat
• Says it’ s the most important boat in the world

高尔基生活在一个俄罗斯非常艰难的年代中, 当时他的周遭伴随着战争, 冲突和大量的变革, 所以可以理解他对于周围环境的细微感知. 或者我们可以理解为, 在一个战乱的年代, 这种安静和平和的自然景观可能也是作者的一种心灵慰藉.

而马克·吐温生活在美国一个新兴科技蓬勃发展的年代, 自然可以理解他对于船本身的技术细节的凸显, 因为在那个年代整个美国都对新的科技报以极大的热情.

2.5.AUTHOR’S PURPOSE

作者的写作目的也是阅读理解中一个非常重要的概念.
每个作家当然都会有一个写作的初衷, 想要彻底地理解文章当然也要对这一目的有所发觉.

作者的写作目的也是阅读理解中一个非常重要的概念.每个作家当然都会有一个写作的初衷, 想要彻底地理解文章当然也要对这一目的有所发觉.

那我们应该如何寻找作者的写作目的呢?

Most writers don’t come right out and say what they mean. We can figure it out for ourselves by looking at the details that a writer chooses to concentrate on and the details he or she chooses to omit.

我们来看例子, 这一段是美国革命家Patrick Henry的在American Revolution开始前夕的演讲片段(March 23, 1775):
Gentlemen may cry, Peace, Peace-but there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale(狂风) that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding(响亮的) arms! Our brethren(<旧>兄弟们) are already in the field! Why stand we here idle? What is it that gentlemen wish? What would they have? ls life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased atthe price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!

作者并没有直接宣称他演讲的目的, 但是我们可以分析一下他在演讲中强调的facts:

• Others are already fighting.
• We are standing idle.
• The war is on its way to us.

同时, 还可以分析他提出的问题:

• Why are we idle?
• Is peace worth it if we don’t have freedom?

从这些文字的细节中我们能感知Author’s Purpose吗?
明显是能的.他要传达的信息和演讲的最终目的就是鼓励他的同胞去革命, 去战斗.
当然最后这一句经典名言更是凸显了他的意图:
l know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!
(不自由, 毋宁死!)

3.LANGUAGE AND WORD CHOTCE 语言与词汇

3.1.FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE 修辞语言

Figurative Language指的是修辞语言.
在中文阅读中, 运用修辞手法非常普遍, 英文也是如此.

比如, 当你想要描述一个人非常的累.
你当然可以说: “He was tired.”’
同时也可以将其写成: He looked like he’d just stepped off a long-delayed flight from the end of the world.

加了一些修辞的手法整个句子传达出来的内容就更加丰富了.

英文中常见的修辞手法包括:

• figure of speech 比喻
• irony 反讽
• metaphor 象征, 隐喻
• personification 拟人
• pun 双关语
• simile 明喻(使用like或as等词语)
• allusion 影射, 典故

3.2.SIMILE 明喻

/ˈsɪməli/
A simile is a figure of speech that compares two unlike things and uses the words “like” or "“as” and they are commonly used in everyday communication. A simile is used with the aim of sparking an interesting connection in the reader’s mind.

Examples:

• The boy was as brave as a lion in the jungle.
• The assistant was as busy as a bee when she was preparing the podium for the presidential address.
• The new teacher is as tall as a giraffe.
• The new neighbor is as curious as a cat ; nothing escapes her attention.

3.3.METAPHOR 暗喻；隐喻

/ˈmetəfər/

A metaphor is a statement that compares two things that are not alike. Unlike similes, metaphors do not use the words “like” or “as.” Suchstatements only make sense when the reader understands the connection between the two things being compared.

Examples:

• The warrior has a heart of stone.
• Love is a battlefield.
• Baby, you are my sunshine.
• Chaos is a friend of the legislator.
• l am drowning in a sea of grief.
• My roommate is going through a rollercoaster of emotions.

3.4.PERSONIFICATION 拟人化

/ pərˌsɑːnɪfɪˈkeɪʃn/

Personification is the attribution of human characteristics to non-livingob jects. Using personification affects the way readers imagine things, andit sparks an interest in the sub ject.

Examples:

• April is the cruelest month of the year.
• The radio stared at me.
• The car brakes screamed all through the journey.
• The car stopped with a groaning complaint.

3.5.CONNOTATIVE LANGUAGE 隐含意义;内涵意义

Connotative Language 指的是隐含意义, 内涵意义.

我们在阅读的时候常常会遇到明明认识一个单词, 却无法将它的意思很好的嵌入到文章当中恰当地理解.这时候, 可能就是作者使用了语言的一些隐含的意义, 从而加强自己的语气.
比如, 大家看下面这句话:
The pretty petals spread like lace over the ground.

当我们使用pretty这个词的时候, 它的意思就是"好看" “看了会开心”.但是, pretty这个词也隐含着某个事物相对脆弱一些的属性, 所以英文当中一般不用pretty去描写车子等事物.所以, 理解单词的隐含意义也是非常关键的.

但能在阅读中真正做到这一点是需要长时间修炼才能达到的程度, 不要急于求成.

3.6.WORD CHOICE

作者选择使用的词汇会传递着语气等相关的信息.

比如, 当一个作者想构建a strong character, 但是又不想用strong这个词.
lf the author chooses “tough”, the character might seem hard to approach.
If the author chooses “steady”, the character might seem boring.
If the author chooses"powerful", the character might seem like a leader.
词汇之前微小的词义差别, 也会导致表达的偏差.所以想要真正习得一门语言, 还是非常需要大量的词汇积累.

4.NONFICTION 非小说

/ nɑnˈfɪkʃən/
前面都是fiction部分的阅读概念比较多, 后面来关注一下nonfiction的阅读分析两个关键概念:Structure & Argument

4.1.STRUCTURE 结构

/ ˈstrʌktʃər/

之前我们讲过了fiction类别的结构, 这里再来补充一下nonfiction类别文章的写作结构.

先来回顾一下它的定义:
STRUCTURE is the organization of a text—or how the pieces fit together.
结构是文本的组织形式, 换句话说就是各部分内容是如何统一起来的.

Nonficiton文体常见结构形式:

• Compare and Contrast Structure (比较和对比结构)
  analyzes what is similar about two or more things and also what is different.
  (分析两个或两个以上事物的相似和不同之处)

• Chronological Structure (时间结构):
  organizes events by when they happened.
  (按照事件的时间发展组织结构)

• Process Structure (过程结构):
  explain the series of actions and how they happen.
  (解释一连串的行动以及它们是如何发生的)

常见的结构形式:

• Cause and Effect Structure (因果结构)∶
  describes an action or event and its consequences.
  (描述一个动作或事件及其后果)

• Problem and Solution Structure (问题与解决结构):
  explains a problem and offers a solution.
  (解释问题并提供解决方案)

• Description Structure(描述结构):
  gives an account of something by offering the relevant details,characteristics, and information.
  (通过提供相关的细节、特征和信息来解释某事)

其中Compare and Contrast Structure的写作目的就是来比较两者或者多者事物之间的关系, 这一类结构文章中常用的词包括:

• in comparison
• by contrast
• similarly
• but
• on the other hand
• on the contrary
• yet
• however
• despite
• as opposed to

Chronological或者是Process一类的结构主要是展示一系列动作的顺序或排序, 常用的词包括:

• first
• next
• then
• before
• after
• 1, 2, 3…
• last
• finally
• A, B, C…

Cause and Effect这一类的结构的写作目的为揭露事件之间的关系以及为什么会发生或者是后续的连锁反应, 文章中常用的词包括:

• for this reason
• thus
• since
• in order to as a result
• therefore
• consequently
• because
• due to
• on account of

Problem and Solution结构写作目的多为展现问题并且提出解决的方式, 常用的词包括:

• problem
• solution
• because
• research
• develop
• cause
• since
• as a result
• in order to
• so that
• goal
• investigate

Problem and Solution结构写作目的多为展现问题并且提出解决的方式, 常用的词包括:

• problem
• solution
• because
• research
• develop
• cause
• since
• as a result
• in order to
• so that
• goal
• investigate

4.2.ARGUMENT 论点

/ ˈɑːrɡjumənt/

我们在nonfiction的阅读中如果能高效地确定central idea, 并且找到对应的论据, 相信你会对文章的整体结构有一个更好的把握.

刚刚讲过, argument当中需要包含reasoning(推理)和evidence(证据)来支撑你的中心思想.因此, 如果想让你的论点经得起推敲则需要找到更有力的reason和evidence.

那么, 我们阅读文章的时候要如何寻找论点, 或者说什么样的论点在文中能够行得通呢?我们接着来讲evaluating ar gument.

Sound Reasoning

如果文中的推理和论证是非常有力的, 我们就把它称之为sound reasoning.这里面的sound意思是合理的".这样的推理需要满足以下的两个条件:

1. All of its parts are true.
   内容要保持真实.
2. It leads us to the conclusion we were aiming for.
   能够得出我们最终想要的结论.

大家来看下面一段话是不是Sound Reasoning:
Some people report feeling cramps(痉挛, 绞痛) when they go swimmingimmediately after eating. So swimming must cause stomachaches.

在这个例子当中, 上句当中的论据明显不能直接推导出后面句子当中的结论, 因为没有足够的证据去证实游泳一会到导致胃痛.可能对水的恐惧, 水的温度高低也有可能导致这一结果.所以这样的推理就不能算是sound reasoning.

再来看一个例子:
lf a person is planning to be in the sun, he or she should wear sunscreen.The sun emits powerful rays that can damage skin and ultimately cause cancer,even when it doesn’t cause a visible burn. But multiple studies have proven that sunscreen protects skin both from burns and from sun damage that may be initially invisible.

这段文字当中的论点为:我们在太阳下要擦防晒霜.段落当中论述了不涂防晒霜和晒伤强烈的相关性, 这种相关性是被科学性的证据所支持的.所以像这样的推理就可以被称之为sound reasoning.

Relevant and Irrelevant Evidence
合理的推理依赖于有力的证据.我们在写文章的时候可能下笔时会想到很多要写的内容, 这时候就需要开启写作的雷达来判断到底哪一个论点才是与文章主旨相关性最强的, 就是英文当中讲的relevant evidence;同时要剔除那些不相关的论述irrelevant evidence.

• Relevant evidence:
  • body of facts and information that support the centralar gument.
• Irrelevant evidence:
  • body of facts and information that are not connected thecentral argument.

比如一个很简单的例子, 今天你去水果店买水果看到:

• Blueberries: $2.99/Pound
• Strawberries: $1.99/Pound
• Cherries: $4.99/Box

你可能会觉得相对于其他水果, 蓝莓的价格好像更贵一些.

Re levant evidence:

• The price of blueberries
• The price of strawberries (compared to the price of blueberries)
• A conversation of the price of a box of cherries into a pound of cherries so that the price can be compared to that of blueberries

Irrelevant evidence :

• The way you feel about blueberries
• The price of blueberry pies (not a fruit)
• Any information about the time you won a blueberry pie eating contest

大家可以通过上面的内容来判别一下论据的相关性.

当然对于同样的事件不同的作者通常会有不同的观点, 这很大程度上与作者的生活背景, 写作目的等相关联.在写作的时候作者会从不同的角度找出支撑观点的事实从而引出不同的推理结论.

我们接着来看两段文字, 出自于两个不同作者之笔.他们对于学校是否应该卖含糖饮料给出了自己的观点.请大家来分析一下行文的观点和论据支撑.

Say No to Sugary Drinks
When we’re thirsty, we shouldn’t have to deal with additives like flavoring, caffeine, and sugar. We should be able to reach for the one thing we actually need: water.
We’re all made up of water—about 60 percent of our body mass is water. Our bodies use water to carry nutrients to cells, so it’s no wonder we get thirsty—that’s an important job! Lakes and rivers aren’t filled with soda, because soda isn’t a basic requirement for life. Water is. The National Center for Health Statistics reported that sugary drinks have been linked to “poor diet quality, weight gain, obesity, and,in adults, type 2 diabetes.” So why would we put vending machines full of them in our schools? let’s stay healthy together—by drinking pure

We Deserve a Choice!
We’re all made up of a lot of water. But we’re not just water. What makesus special is the parts of us that aren’t just water—the special flavor that makes each one of us who we are. That’s why I like soda from time to time. The bubbles and flavor make the day more interesting. Some of the drinks containsugar, but some contain fruit juices or are fortified with vitamins. They provide calories,which everyone needs for energy. Furthermore, it’s importantthat I get to make my own choice, even about things like drinking water or soda. Making a good decision is part of growing up. If you never give me a choice tomake. how can I learn how to make a good one?

SOUND ARGUMENT CHECKLIST:

• There’s a claim.
• The claim is supported by evidence and reason.
• The tone is persuasive—consider word choice, figurative meaning, connotative meaning, analogies, and allusions.
• Everything relates to the central idea.-All of the facts are true.
• The reasoning is sound.
• All of the evidence is relevant.