公元前 1 世纪后拉丁字母的演化

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Later development of the Latin alphabet

Written by David Diringer, David R. Olson

Last Updated: Aug 20, 2024

As already mentioned, the original Etruscan alphabet consisted of 26 letters, of which the Romans adopted only 21. They did not retain the three Greek aspirate letters (theta, phi, and chi) in the alphabet because there were no corresponding Latin sounds but did employ them to represent the numbers 100, 1,000, and 50. Of the three Etruscan s sounds, the Romans kept what had been the Greek sigma. The symbol that represented the aspirate later received the shape H as it did in Etruscan. I was the sign both of the vowel i and the consonant j. X was added later to represent the sound x and was placed at the end of the alphabet. At a later stage, after 250 bce, the seventh letter, the Greek zeta, was dropped because Latin did not require it, and a new letter, G, made by adding a bar to the lower end of C, was placed in its position.
如前所述，最初的伊特鲁里亚字母表由 26 个字母组成，罗马人只采用了其中的 21 个字母。他们没有在字母表中保留三个希腊语吸气字母（theta、phi 和 chi），因为没有相应的拉丁音，而是使用它们来表示数字 100、1,000 和 50。在伊特鲁里亚的三个音中，罗马人保留了希腊的 sigma。代表吸气物的符号后来获得了 H 形状，就像在伊特鲁里亚语中一样。I 是元音 i 和辅音 j. X 后来被添加来表示声音 x，并被放在字母表的末尾。在后来的阶段，在公元前 250 年之后，第七个字母，希腊语 zeta，因为拉丁语不需要它，一个新的字母 G 被放置在它的位置，通过在 C 的下端添加一个条形来制作。

After the conquest of Greece in the 1st century bce, a large number of Greek words were borrowed by the Latin language. At that time the symbols Y and Z were adopted from the contemporary Greek alphabet, but only to transliterate Greek words; hence, they do not appear in normal Latin inscriptions. They were placed at the end of the alphabet, and the Latin script thus became one of 23 symbols.
公元前 1 世纪征服希腊后，拉丁语借用了大量希腊词。当时，符号 Y 和 Z 是从当代希腊字母表中采用的，但仅用于音译希腊单词;因此，它们不会出现在普通的拉丁铭文中。它们被放在字母表的末尾，拉丁字母因此成为 23 个符号之一。

A few permanent additions or, rather, differentiations from existing letters occurred during the Middle Ages, when the signs for u and v, and i and j, previously written interchangeably for either the vowel or the consonant sound, became conventionalized as u and i for vowels and v and j for consonants. W was introduced by Norman scribes to represent the English sound w (a semivowel) and to differentiate it from the v sound.
在中世纪，出现了一些永久性的添加，或者更确切地说，与现有字母的区别，当时 u 和 v 以及 i 和 j 的符号，以前可以互换写成元音或辅音，现在约定俗成 u 和 i 表示元音，v 和 j 表示辅音。W 是由诺曼抄写员引入的，用于表示英语发音 w（半元音）并将其与 v 音区分开来。

The connection of the capital letters of modern writing with the ancient Semitic-Greek-Etruscan-Latin letters is evident even to a layman. The connection of the minuscules (i.e., the small letters) with the ancient Latin letters is not as evident, but in fact both the majuscules and the minuscules descended from the same ancient Latin alphabet. The different shapes of the small letters are the result of a transformation of the ancient letters by the elimination of a part of the letter—as, for instance, h from H or b from B—or by lengthening a part of it—for instance, d from D. Moreover, the change of the Latin writing into the modern script was induced by the nature of the tool, primarily the pen, and the material of writing, mainly papyrus and parchment, and, from the 14th century onward, also paper. It was the pen, with its preference for curves, that eliminated the angular forms; it was the papyrus, and still more the parchment or vellum, and, in modern times, paper, that made these curves possible.
现代书写的大写字母与古代闪米特-希腊-伊特鲁里亚-拉丁字母的联系，即使是外行人也能看出。小写字母（即小写字母）与古拉丁字母的联系并不那么明显，但实际上 majuscules 和 minuscules 都源自同一个古拉丁字母。小写字母的不同形状是古代字母转换的结果，通过消除字母的一部分（例如，h 与 H 或从 B 中去除 b）或延长它的一部分（例如，d 与 D）。此外，拉丁文字向现代文字的转变是由工具的性质引起的，主要是钢笔，以及书写材料，主要是纸莎草纸和羊皮纸，从 14 世纪开始，还有纸张。正是这支偏爱曲线的笔消除了棱角分明的形式;是纸莎草纸，更确切地说是羊皮纸或牛皮纸，在现代，还有纸张，使这些曲线成为可能。

In ancient times the minuscule did not exist, but there were several varieties of the capital and the cursive scripts. There were three varieties of the capitals: the lapidary capitals (used mainly on stone monuments); the elegant book capitals, somewhat rounded in shape; and the rustic capitals, which were less carefully elaborated than the lapidary script and not as round as the book capitals but more easily and quickly written. In everyday life the cursive script—i.e., the current hand—was developed with continuous modifications for greater speed. There were several varieties of it, such as those of Pompeii and Alburnus Major (a town in ancient Dacia, modern Roşia Montană, Romania). Between the monumental and the cursive scripts there was a whole series of types that had some of the peculiarities of each group. There were lapidary mixed scripts and book semicursive scripts, and there was the early uncial, or rather semiuncial, script of the 3rd century ce, which seems to have developed into the beautiful uncial script.
在古代，小写字体不存在，但有几种大写字体和草书字体。大写字母有三种类型：宝石大写字母（主要用于石碑）;优雅的书柱，形状略显圆润;以及质朴的柱头，它们不像宝石字体那样精心制作，也不像书中的柱头那样圆润，但更容易、更快速地书写。在日常生活中，草书体（即当前手）是通过不断修改来开发的，以提高速度。它有几个变体，例如庞贝古城和大阿尔本努斯（古达契亚的一个小镇，现代罗马尼亚的 Roşia Montană）的变体。在纪念碑体和草书体之间，有一整套字体，它们具有每组字体的一些特点。有宝石混合体和书本半草书体，还有公元 3 世纪的早期安色尔体，或者更确切地说是半安色尔体，它似乎已经发展成为美丽的安色尔体。

When the various European countries had shaken off the political authority of Rome and the learned communities had been dissolved and their members scattered, a marked change took place in the development of the Latin literary, or book, hand. Several national hands, styles of the Latin cursive, assumed different features. There thus developed on the European continent and in the British Isles the five basic national hands, each giving rise to several varieties: Italian, Merovingian in France, Visigothic in Spain, Germanic, and Insular or Anglo-Irish hands. At the end of the 8th century the Carolingian (Caroline) hand developed and, after becoming the official script and literary hand of the Frankish empire, developed as the main book hand of western Europe in the following two centuries. The combination of the majuscules, or capital letters, and minuscules, or small letters, can be attributed mainly to the Carolingian script.
当欧洲各国摆脱了罗马的政治权威，学术团体解散，其成员分散时，拉丁文学或书籍的发展发生了显着变化。几种拉丁草书的国手风格具有不同的特征。因此，在欧洲大陆和不列颠群岛发展了五个基本的国手，每个手都产生了几个变体：意大利、法国的墨洛温王朝、西班牙的西哥特式、日耳曼人和岛屿或盎格鲁-爱尔兰的手。8 世纪末，加洛林吉亚（Caroline）手发展起来，在成为法兰克帝国的官方文字和文学手之后，在接下来的两个世纪里发展成为西欧的主要书手。大写字母（大写字母）和小写字母（小写字母）的组合主要归功于加洛林吉亚文字。

In the course of the next centuries, various book hands or chart hands and other cursive scripts developed from the Carolingian style. In the late 12th century and during the next two centuries, the letters gradually became angular in shape; this resulted from the pen being held in a position that made a slanting stroke. The new hand, termed black letter or Gothic, was employed mainly in northwestern Europe, including England, until the 16th century. It is still used, though rarely, in Germany, where it is called Fraktur script.
在接下来的几个世纪中，各种书本书写体或图表书写体以及其他草书体从加洛林格式发展而来。在 12 世纪末和接下来的两个世纪，字母的形状逐渐变得棱角分明;这是由于笔被保持在倾斜笔触的位置。这种被称为黑字或哥特式的新指针主要在欧洲西北部使用，包括英格兰，直到 16 世纪。它在德国仍然使用，尽管很少，在那里它被称为 Fraktur 脚本。

In Italy the black letter was also used, but the Italians preferred a rounder type, called littera antiqua, “old letter.” During the 15th century the round, neat, humanistic or Renaissance hand was introduced in Florence and was employed for literary productions, while the needs of everyday life were met by an equally beautiful, though not as clearly legible, cursive hand. The two styles developed into two main varieties: (1) the Venetian minuscule, nowadays known as italic, traditionally (though wrongly) considered to be an imitation of Petrarch’s handwriting; and (2) the Roman type, preferred in northern Italy, chiefly in Venice, where it was used in the printing presses at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th centuries; from Italy it spread to Holland, England (about 1518), Germany, France, and Spain. The Classical Roman character was adopted for the majuscules. This majuscule writing, along with the Roman-type minuscule and the italic, spread all over the world. In England they were adopted from Italy in the 16th century.
在意大利，也使用黑色字母，但意大利人更喜欢一种更圆的字体，称为 littera antiqua，“旧字母”。在 15 世纪，圆润、整洁、人文主义或文艺复兴时期的手被引入佛罗伦萨，并被用于文学作品，而日常生活的需要则由同样美丽但不那么清晰易读的草书手来满足。这两种风格发展成两个主要品种：（1）威尼斯小字，现在被称为斜体，传统上（尽管错误地）被认为是对彼特拉克笔迹的模仿;（2）罗马字体，在意大利北部，主要是威尼斯受到青睐，在 15 世纪末和 16 世纪初被用于印刷机;它从意大利传播到荷兰、英格兰（约 1518 年）、德国、法国和西班牙。古典罗马字符被用于 majuscules。这种 majuscule 文字，以及罗马式的小字和斜体，传播到世界各地。在英国，他们于 16 世纪从意大利被收养。

The survival of the black letter (Gothic) in Germany is attributed to the fact that it was the current style at the time of the invention of printing in Germany and was thus employed by Gutenberg. In Italy the littera antiqua was used by the German printers Konrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannartz, as well as by Nicolas Jenson, the great Venetian printer who perfected the Roman type.
黑字（哥特式）在德国幸存下来，是因为它是德国发明印刷术时的流行风格，因此被古腾堡采用。在意大利，德国印刷商 Konrad Sweynheym 和 Arnold Pannartz 以及完善罗马字体的伟大威尼斯印刷商 Nicolas Jenson 都使用了 littera antiqua。

The modern national alphabets of the western European nations are, strictly speaking, adaptations of the Latin alphabet to Germanic (English, German, Swedish, Dutch, Danish, etc.), Romance (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.), Slavic (Polish, Czech, Slovak, etc.), Baltic (Lithuanian, Latvian), Finno-Ugric (Finnish, Hungarian, etc.), and other languages. The adaptation of a script to a language is not easy, especially when the language contains sounds that do not occur in the speech from which the script has been borrowed. There arises, therefore, the difficulty of representing the new sounds. This difficulty was met quite differently in various alphabets. For instance, the sound shch as in English “Ashchurch,” which in Russian is represented by one sign (щ), is represented in Czech by two signs (šč), in Polish by four (szcz), in English likewise by four, though different ones, and in German by as many as seven (schtsch). Thus, in these instances, combinations of two or more letters were introduced to represent the new sounds.
严格来说，西欧国家的现代国家字母表是拉丁字母对日耳曼语（英语、德语、瑞典语、荷兰语、丹麦语等）、罗曼语（意大利语、法语、西班牙语、葡萄牙语等）、斯拉夫语（波兰语、捷克语、斯洛伐克语等）、波罗的海语（立陶宛语、拉脱维亚语）、芬兰-乌戈尔语（芬兰语、匈牙利语等）和其他语言的改编。将脚本适应某种语言并不容易，尤其是当该语言包含的文本中没有出现在借用脚本的语音中时。因此，出现了表现新声音的困难。这个难题在各种字母表中得到的解决方式却大不相同。例如，英语中的发音 shch “Ashchurch”，在俄语中由一个符号（щ）表示，在捷克语中由两个符号（šč）表示，在波兰语中由四个（szcz）表示，在英语中同样由四个表示，尽管它们不同，在德语中由多达七个（schtsch）表示。因此，在这些情况下，引入了两个或多个字母的组合来表示新声音。

In other cases, new signs were invented—e.g., in the early Greek alphabet and in the Anglo-Saxon adoption of the Latin alphabet. In more recent times the most common way of representing sounds that cannot be represented by letters of the borrowed alphabet has been to add diacritical marks, either above or under the letters, to their right or left, or inside. To this group belong the German vowels ü, ä, ö; the Portuguese and French cedilla in ç; the tilde on Spanish ñ and Portuguese ã and õ; the Italian à, é, è, ì, ù, etc.; the great number of marks in the Latin-Slavic alphabets (Polish, Czech, Croatian, etc.)—a̦, e̦, č, ć, š, ś, ž, ż, ź, and so on. The Latin-Turkish alphabet, introduced in 1928, became general throughout Turkey in 1930. It contains 29 letters, of which two vowels (ö and ü) and three consonants (ç, ĝ, and ş) are distinguished by diacritical marks; in one instance there is a distinction in reverse—the dot from i is eliminated (ı) to represent a new sound.
在其他情况下，发明了新的符号——例如，在早期希腊字母表中和盎格鲁-撒克逊人采用拉丁字母表中。在近代，表示无法用借用字母表的字母表示的声音的最常见方法是在字母的上方或下方、右侧或左侧或内部添加变音符号。该组属于德语元音 ü、ä、ö;ç 中的葡萄牙语和法语 cedilla;西班牙语 ñ 和葡萄牙语 ã 和 õ 上的波浪号;意大利语 à， é， è， ì， ù 等;拉丁-斯拉夫字母表中的大量标记（波兰语、捷克语、克罗地亚语等）—a̦、e̦、č、ć、š、ś、ž、ż、ź 等。拉丁-土耳其字母于 1928 年引入，并于 1930 年在土耳其成为通用字母。它包含 29 个字母，其中两个元音（ö 和 ü）和三个辅音（ç、ĝ 和 ş）用变音符号区分;在一个实例中，有一个反向的区别 — i 中的点被消除（ı）以表示新声音。