18 世纪克劳德・沙普光学电报 | 现代通信原理的早期实践

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分类专栏： signals and systems 文章标签： Chappe Tele

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Napoleonic Telecommunications: The Chappe Semaphore Telegraph

The telegraph used by France during the Napoleonic Wars was an optical system based on the use of semaphore signals. When the Chappe semaphore telegraph was introduced during the French Revolution, it revolutionized communications by dramatically reducing the length of time it took for messages to travel. Although the semaphore telegraph was costly and could not operate at night or during bad weather, it was used for over 60 years, and paved the way for the introduction of the more efficient electrical telegraph later in the 19th century.

在拿破仑战争期间，法国使用的电报是一种基于信号旗信号的光学系统。在法国大革命期间引入的夏普信号旗电报彻底改变了通信方式，极大地缩短了信息传输的时间。尽管信号旗电报成本高昂，且无法在夜间或恶劣天气下工作，但它被使用了超过 60 年，并为 19 世纪后期更高效的电报的引入铺平了道路。

Chappe semaphore telegraph demonstration

A demonstration of the Chappe semaphore telegraph

夏普信号旗电报的演示

Chappe’s invention

The Napoleonic telegraph system was invented by Claude Chappe. Chappe, who was born in Brûlon on December 25, 1763, initially embarked on a religious career. When he graduated from college in 1783, he became a commendatory abbot and was given two benefices near Paris. Chappe had a longstanding interest in science (his uncle, astronomer Jean-Baptiste Chappe d’Auteroche, was known for his observations of the Transit of Venus), so he used the funds to set up a laboratory in his home. He conducted physics experiments and wrote papers about the results.

拿破仑时期的电报系统是由克劳德・夏普发明的。夏普于 1763 年 12 月 25 日出生于布吕龙，最初从事宗教职业。1783 年从大学毕业时，他成为了一名名誉副主教，并在巴黎附近获得了两个教区。夏普长期对科学感兴趣（他的叔叔、天文学家让 - 巴蒂斯特・夏普・德・奥特罗什因观察金星凌日而闻名），因此他利用这些资金在家中建立了一个实验室。他进行了物理实验并撰写了相关论文。

With the crackdown on the church during the French Revolution, Chappe lost his benefices. He returned to Brûlon and turned to science full-time. In early 1790, he began working with his brothers on the development of a long-distance signalling system. Chappe experimented with different designs, trying methods that relied variously on electricity, sound, and smoke. He finally settled on a system in which telescopes were used to observe visual signals that could then be deciphered. Optical signalling systems dated back over two thousand years, in the form of hydraulic telegraphs (used in ancient Greece), torches and smoke signals, but had not been used on a large scale in the modern world.

在法国大革命期间对教会的打击下，夏普失去了他的教区。他回到布吕龙，全身心投入到科学中。1790 年初，他开始与兄弟们合作开发一种远程信号系统。夏普尝试了不同的设计，使用依赖于电力、声音和烟雾的方法。他最终确定了一个系统，通过望远镜观察可以解码的视觉信号。光学信号系统可以追溯到两千多年前，形式包括水力电报（古希腊使用）、火炬和烟雾信号，但在现代世界中并未大规模使用。

On March 2, 1791, the Chappes offered the first public demonstration, sending a message between Brûlon and Parcé, some 16 kilometres (10 miles) away. The message was: “Si vous réussissez vous serez bientôt couvert de gloire [If you succeed, you will soon bask in glory].” (1)

1791 年 3 月 2 日，夏普兄弟进行了首次公开演示，在相距 16 公里（10 英里）的布吕龙和帕尔塞之间发送了一条信息。信息内容为：“Si vous réussissez vous serez bientôt couvert de gloire [如果你成功，你将很快荣耀加身]。”(1)

More than glory, Chappe needed money. Fortunately, his brother Ignace was soon elected to the new Legislative Assembly in Paris. Ignace arranged for Claude to address the Assembly on March 24, 1792. Among other things, Claude pointed out how useful his system could be in sending orders to the frontiers, something that became particularly relevant when France declared war on Prussia and Austria a month later.

夏普需要的不仅仅是荣耀，他更需要资金。幸运的是，他的兄弟伊格纳斯很快被选入巴黎的新立法议会。伊格纳斯安排克劳德在 1792 年 3 月 24 日向立法议会发表演讲。克劳德指出，他的系统在向边境发送命令方面可能会非常有用，这在法国一个月后对普鲁士和奥地利宣战时变得尤为重要。

In September 1792, the Legislative Assembly was disbanded and replaced with the National Convention, to which Ignace did not gain election. But by then the Chappes had supporters among the legislators. On August 4, 1793, the Convention approved funds for the construction of a line of stations from Paris to Lille, some 200 km to the north, near the Austrian Netherlands. Chappe was given the title of “Telegraph Engineer” and a salary. He continued to improve on his design.

1792 年 9 月，立法议会解散，取而代之的是国民公会，伊格纳斯未能当选。但此时夏普兄弟已经在立法者中获得了支持者。1793 年 8 月 4 日，国民公会批准了从巴黎到北部 200 公里处的里尔（靠近奥地利尼德兰）建设一系列站点的资金。夏普被授予 “电报工程师” 的头衔和薪水。他继续改进他的设计。

On August 15, 1794, the first official message was sent along the line to Paris, reporting the recapture of Le Quesnoy: “Austrian garrison of 3,000 slaves has laid down its arms and surrendered at discretion.” (2) The message arrived about an hour after the battle ended. A courier would have taken a further 10 hours to arrive.

1794 年 8 月 15 日，第一条官方信息沿线路发送到巴黎，报告收复了勒孔诺伊：“3000 名奥地利驻军已放下武器，听凭处置。”(2) 这条信息在战斗结束后大约一小时到达。如果使用信使，还需要额外 10 小时才能到达。

In October 1794, the Convention authorized the construction of a second line, connecting Paris to Strasbourg. This was completed in May 1798. Later that year, a telegraph line opened between Paris and Brest.

1794 年 10 月，国民公会授权建设第二条线路，连接巴黎和斯特拉斯堡。该线路于 1798 年 5 月完成。同年晚些时候，巴黎和布雷斯特之间开通了一条电报线路。

How the Chappe telegraph worked

Chappe telegraph scale model

Scale model of a Chappe telegraph

夏普电报的缩尺模型

Claude Chappe initially called his invention the tachygraphe (from the Greek for “fast writer”), but was persuaded to change the name to telegraph (“far writer”), a name coined by French statesman André François Miot de Mélito.

克劳德・夏普最初将他的发明称为 “tachygraphe”（希腊语 “快速书写者”），但后来被说服将其改名为 “电报”（希腊语 “远距离书写者”），这个名字是由法国政治家安德烈・弗朗索瓦・米奥・德・梅利托创造的。

Telegraph stations were situated roughly 10 to 15 km apart, within sight of each other, either on existing high places, such as belfries, or on towers specially-constructed for the purpose. Each tower was equipped with two telescopes – one pointed toward the nearest station up the line, the other toward the nearest station down the line – and an apparatus that Chappe called a semaphore (from the Greek for “bearing a sign”). The latter consisted of two movable wooden arms (each called an indicator) connected by a long, movable wooden cross-bar (called the regulator). The arms were counterbalanced with iron weights. The regulator and indicators were painted black to increase their contrast against the sky.

电报站大约每隔 10 到 15 公里设置一个，彼此可以相互看见，通常位于现有的高处，如钟楼，或者专门为该目的建造的塔上。每个塔都配备了两台望远镜 —— 一台指向上一站，另一台指向下一站 —— 以及夏普称为信号机（希腊语 “带标志的装置”）的装置。信号机由两个可移动的木制臂（每个称为指示器）组成，通过一个长的可移动木制横杆（称为调节器）连接。臂通过铁块配重。调节器和指示器被涂成黑色，以增强它们与天空的对比度。

The regulator could be positioned vertically or horizontally (when it was in an oblique, or diagonal, position, it was not transmitting a signal). Each indicator could be placed at one of seven angles, each 45 degrees apart (excluding the position in which an indicator was extending the regulator). This resulted in a total of 98 (2 × 7 × 7) unique positions. Six positions were reserved for control signals, leaving 92 positions for coded signals (letters of the alphabet, numbers, frequently-used syllables).

调节器可以处于垂直或水平位置（当它处于倾斜或对角位置时，它不传输信号）。每个指示器可以放置在七个角度中的一个，每个角度相隔 45 度（不包括指示器延伸调节器的位置）。这总共产生了 98 个（2 × 7 × 7）独特的位置。其中六个位置保留用于控制信号，剩下 92 个位置用于编码信号（字母表中的字母、数字、常用音节）。

In 1795, a 92-page code book was introduced, along with a two-step signalling system. The first signal indicated the page of the code book; the second indicated the line (individual words, abbreviations, sentences, etc., numbered from 1 to 92) on that page. This meant that 8464 (92 × 92) codes could be transmitted. Later refinements eventually resulted in 40,000 codes.

1795 年，引入了一本 92 页的密码本，以及一个两步信号系统。第一个信号表示密码本的页码；第二个信号表示该页上的行（单词、缩写、句子等，编号从 1 到 92）。这意味着可以传输 8464 个（92 × 92）代码。后来的改进最终产生了 40,000 个代码。

Each station was staffed by two operators. A control mechanism, designed and built by clockmaker Abraham-Louis Breguet, allowed an operator to adjust the regulator and indicators from inside the building, via a scale model of the semaphore, using pulleys and ropes.

每个站点由两名操作员值守。由钟表匠阿伯拉罕 - 路易・宝玑设计和建造的控制装置允许操作员通过信号机的缩尺模型，使用滑轮和绳索从建筑物内部调整调节器和指示器。

An operator moved the arms through a sequence of positions, spelling out a message in code. The operator in the next tower read the message through a telescope, and then replicated it, passing it along to the next tower. Operators had to verify that the next station was correctly reproducing each signal, thus reducing the risk of transmission errors. Coding and decoding happened only at the end station and at divisional stations (every 10th to 15th station). At the in-between stations, the operators simply repeated the signal without knowing the code. The ability to code and decode at divisional stations meant that when weather conditions obscured the line of sight, a messenger could carry the message to a divisional station that was experiencing better weather and have the message re-transmitted from there. Special signals were used to indicate the priority of the message, which was helpful in situations where there were messages travelling in opposite directions. In cases where messages had equivalent priority, those from Paris were transmitted first.

操作员通过一系列位置移动臂，用代码拼写出一条信息。下一个塔中的操作员通过望远镜读取消息，然后复制它，将其传递到下一个塔。操作员必须验证下一个站点是否正确地复制了每个信号，从而降低了传输错误的风险。编码和解码仅在终端站和分站（每 10 到 15 个站点）进行。在中间站点，操作员只需简单地重复信号，而无需知道代码。在分站进行编码和解码的能力意味着，当天气条件阻碍视线时，信使可以将信息带到天气更好的分站，并从那里重新传输信息。特殊信号用于指示信息的优先级，这在有信息反向传输的情况下非常有用。在信息优先级相同的情况下，优先传输来自巴黎的信息。

In good weather, the duration of a transmission was 20-30 seconds per symbol per station. In 1823, a newspaper reported:

在天气良好的情况下，每个符号每个站点的传输时间为 20 到 30 秒。1823 年，一家报纸报道：

News can be received at Paris in three minutes from Calais by means of thirty-three telegraphs; in two minutes from Lisle, by twenty-two telegraphs; in six minutes and an half from Strasbourg, by forty four telegraphs; in twenty minutes from Toulon by 100 telegraphs; and in eight minutes from Brest, by sixty four telegraphs. (3)

“通过 33 个电报，加来（Calais）的消息可以在三分钟内到达巴黎；通过 22 个电报，里尔（Lille）的消息可以在两分钟内到达；通过 44 个电报，斯特拉斯堡的消息可以在六分半钟内到达；通过 100 个电报，土伦（Toulon）的消息可以在 20 分钟内到达；通过 64 个电报，布雷斯特（Brest）的消息可以在八分钟内到达。”(3)

This was compared to the average speed of a mail coach of around 10 km/hour.

这与平均时速约 10 公里的邮车相比。

The telegraph under Napoleon

Claude Chappe

克劳德・夏普

In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power through a coup d’état. Chappe met with Napoleon to propose commercial use of the telegraph system. He suggested using it to relay daily commodity prices and national news, but Napoleon agreed to only one civilian use: the weekly transmission of results from the state-run lottery.

1799 年，拿破仑・波拿巴通过政变夺取了政权。夏普与拿破仑会面，提出将电报系统用于商业用途。他建议用它来传递日常商品价格和国家新闻，但拿破仑只同意一种民用用途：每周传输国家彩票的结果。

Napoleon regarded the telegraph as more useful for military and administrative purposes. He ordered an extension of the network, including a line to Boulogne in preparation for his planned invasion of England. In 1801, he asked Claude Chappe’s brother Abraham to design a station capable of transmitting a signal across the English Channel. Chappe built and tested a prototype (with an extra-large semaphore) between Belleville and Saint-Martin-du-Terre, approximating the shortest distance across the Channel. A large station was installed in Boulogne, but Napoleon’s invasion never happened.

拿破仑认为电报在军事和行政方面更有用。他下令扩展网络，包括一条通往布洛涅的线路，为他计划入侵英国做准备。1801 年，他要求克劳德・夏普的兄弟亚伯拉罕设计一个能够跨越英吉利海峡传输信号的站点。夏普在贝尔维尔和圣马丁德特尔之间建造并测试了一个原型（带有一个超大型信号机），模拟了海峡的最短距离。在布洛涅安装了一个大型站点，但拿破仑的入侵从未发生。

Under Napoleon, the Paris-Lille line was extended to Brussels in 1802, and to Antwerp in 1809. In 1804, Napoleon ordered the construction of a line from Paris to Milan via Lyon. Other European countries, including Sweden, Britain, Denmark and Portugal, were spurred into developing their own telegraph systems, or adopting variations of Chappe’s design.

在拿破仑统治下，巴黎 - 里尔线路于 1802 年延伸至布鲁塞尔，1809 年延伸至安特卫普。1804 年，拿破仑下令建设一条从巴黎经里昂通往米兰的线路。包括瑞典、英国、丹麦和葡萄牙在内的其他欧洲国家被激励发展自己的电报系统，或者采用夏普设计的变体。

Meanwhile, Claude Chappe was growing increasingly depressed as rivals claimed to have invented better forms of the telegraph, or to have invented it before him. Even Breguet insisted he contributed more to Chappe’s design than he was given credit for. On January 23, 1805, Chappe killed himself by jumping into a well outside the Telegraph Administration building in Paris. He was 41 years old. His tombstone, at Père Lachaise cemetery in Paris, features a lead replica of a telegraph tower with the arms positioned in the signal for “at rest.”

与此同时，随着竞争对手声称发明了更好的电报形式，或者声称比他更早发明了电报，克劳德・夏普变得越来越沮丧。甚至连宝玑都坚持认为他对夏普的设计贡献比他得到的承认更多。1805 年 1 月 23 日，夏普在巴黎电报管理局大楼外跳井自杀。他当时 41 岁。他在巴黎拉雪兹公墓的墓碑上有一个铅制的电报塔复制品，其臂处于 “休息” 信号的位置。

During the 1809 campaign, Napoleon tried to use the telegraph to command his army from a distance. He sent his Chief of Staff, Louis-Alexandre Berthier, to set up Imperial headquarters at Strasbourg. On April 10, Napoleon sent orders to Berthier telling him to go to Augsburg, and if the Austrians attacked before April 15, to concentrate the troops at Augsburg and Donauworth, make them ready to march, and send Napoleon’s guard and horses to Stuttgart. Unfortunately, the message was delayed by fog and did not reach Berthier until April 16. Napoleon was also communicating with Berthier via courier, which led to further confusion as messages would arrive out of sequence, depending on the form of transmission. Berthier finally told Napoleon that he needed to join the army in person.

在 1809 年的战役中，拿破仑试图用电报从远处指挥他的军队。他派遣他的参谋长路易 - 亚历山大・贝尔蒂埃在斯特拉斯堡建立帝国总部。4 月 10 日，拿破仑向贝尔蒂埃发送命令，让他前往奥格斯堡，并且如果奥地利人在 4 月 15 日之前发动攻击，就将部队集中在奥格斯堡和多瑙沃思，做好行军准备，并将拿破仑的卫队和马匹送往斯图加特。不幸的是，由于大雾，信息直到 4 月 16 日才到达贝尔蒂埃。拿破仑还通过信使与贝尔蒂埃通信，这导致了进一步的混乱，因为根据传输方式的不同，信息会以错误的顺序到达。贝尔蒂埃最终告诉拿破仑，他需要亲自加入军队。

In 1810, the telegraph system was extended to Venice and Amsterdam, and in 1813 to Mainz. In 1811, the telegraph was used to announce the birth of Napoleon’s son. In 1812, Napoleon asked Abraham Chappe to design a mobile telegraph he could take with him on the Russian campaign, but this proved unviable.

1810 年，电报系统延伸至威尼斯和阿姆斯特丹，1813 年延伸至美因茨。1811 年，电报被用来宣布拿破仑之子的出生。1812 年，拿破仑要求亚伯拉罕・夏普设计一种他可以在俄罗斯战役中随身携带的移动电报，但证明这是不可行的。

Unfortunately, there was no telegraph line between Paris and Toulouse, in the south of France. This meant that on April 10, 1814, four days after Napoleon abdicated the French throne, some 1,000 people were killed and over 7,000 were injured in a battle at Toulouse between French forces under Marshal Soult and a coalition of British, Spanish and Portuguese troops under the Duke of Wellington. A French colonel and an English colonel left Paris on April 7 with the news that the war was over, but they did not reach Toulouse until April 12.

不幸的是，法国南部的图卢兹与巴黎之间没有电报线路。这意味着在 1814 年 4 月 10 日，即拿破仑放弃法国王位四天后，大约 1000 人在图卢兹战役中丧生，超过 7000 人受伤。这场战役发生在苏尔特元帅指挥的法军和威灵顿公爵指挥的英、西、葡联军之间。4 月 7 日，一名法国上校和一名英国上校带着战争结束的消息离开巴黎，但他们直到 4 月 12 日才到达图卢兹。

The telegraph after Napoleon

Although the French telegraph lines in Italy, Belgium, Germany and Holland disappeared after Napoleon’s fall, new telegraph lines continued to be constructed until 1846. The network grew to 556 stations covering approximately 5,000 km (3,000 miles) of lines, most of them in France. Small telegraph lines were installed in the French colonies of Algeria and Morocco.

尽管在拿破仑倒台后，法国在意大利、比利时、德国和荷兰的电报线路消失了，但直到 1846 年，新的电报线路仍在继续建设。该网络扩展到 556 个站点，覆盖了大约 5000 公里（3000 英里）的线路，其中大部分在法国。在法国的阿尔及利亚和摩洛哥殖民地也安装了小型电报线路。

In 1846, the French government decided to replace the optical telegraph with an electric one. England had been using the electric telegraph since 1837. This did not mark the last French use of the optical telegraph, however. During the Crimean War (1853-56), specially designed mobile Chappe stations could be built in 20 minutes, faster than long-distance electric telegraph lines. The last news reportedly transmitted by a Chappe telegraph was the fall of Sebastopol in 1855.

1846 年，法国政府决定用电动电报取代光学电报。英国自 1837 年以来一直在使用电动电报。然而，这并不标志着法国最后一次使用光学电报。在克里米亚战争（1853-1856）期间，特别设计的移动夏普站可以在 20 分钟内建成，比长途电动电报线路更快。据报道，夏普电报传输的最后一条消息是 1855 年塞瓦斯托波尔的陷落。

The optical telegraph was expensive to operate, limited to government use (a French bill passed in 1837 banned private networks), unable to operate at night (attaching lanterns to the ends of the indicators did not help) or in bad weather (fog, rain, snow), and susceptible to operator misbehavior. In 1836, some telegraph operators were found to have been introducing a specific pattern of errors into messages, to relay information about the stock market to Bordeaux. Nonetheless, the Chappe telegraph was a revolution in communications at the time, and paved the way for future developments by proving that simple signs could be used to rapidly send complex messages over long distances.

光学电报的运营成本高昂，仅限于政府使用（1837 年通过的一项法国法案禁止私人网络），无法在夜间工作（在指示器末端安装灯笼并无帮助），也无法在恶劣天气（雾、雨、雪）中工作，并且容易受到操作员不当行为的影响。1836 年，一些电报操作员被发现故意在信息中引入特定的错误模式，以便向波尔多传递股市信息。尽管如此，夏普电报在当时的通信领域是一场革命，并通过证明简单的符号可以用来快速在长距离上传递复杂的信息，为未来的发展铺平了道路。

In Alexandre Dumas’ novel, The Count of Monte Cristo, the count says:

在亚历山大・杜马的小说《基督山伯爵》中，伯爵说：

Yes, a telegraph! I had often seen one placed at the end of a road on a hillock, and in the light of the sun its black arms, bending in every direction, always reminded one of the claws of an immense beetle; and I assure you it was never without emotion that I gazed on it, for I could not help thinking how wonderful it was that these various signs should be made to cleave the air with such precision as to convey to the distance of some 300 leagues the ideas and wishes of a man sitting at a table at one end of the line to another man similarly placed at the opposite extremity, and all this effected by the simple act of volition on the part of the individual communicating the intelligence. I began to think of genii, sylphs, gnomes, in short, of all the ministers of the occult sciences until I laughed aloud at the freaks of my own imagination. Now, it never occurred to me to wish for a nearer inspection of these large insects with their long black claws, for I always feared to find under their stone wings some little human genius fagged to death with cabals, factions, and government intrigues. But one fine day I learned that the mover of this telegraph was only a poor wretch hired for 1200 francs a year, and employed all the day, not in studying the heavens like an astronomer, nor in gazing on the water like an angler, nor even enjoying the privilege of observing the country around him; but all his monotonous life was passed in watching his fellow-insect, who was placed four or five leagues distant from him. (4)

“电报！我经常看到它被放置在路边的小山上，在阳光下，它黑色的臂膀向各个方向弯曲，总是让人联想到一只巨大的甲虫的爪子；我向你保证，我每次看到它时都充满了情感，因为我无法不惊叹于这些不同的信号竟然能够如此精准地在 300 里格的距离上传递一个人坐在桌子一端的想法和意愿，而另一个人则坐在另一端的桌子旁，所有这些都仅仅通过传递信息的人的简单意愿来实现。我开始想到精灵、风精、地精，总之，所有神秘科学的使者，直到我忍不住笑出声来，嘲笑自己荒诞的想象。现在，我从未想过要近距离观察这些长着黑色长爪的大型昆虫，因为我总是担心在它们的石翼下会发现某个被阴谋、派系和政府阴谋累垮的小天才。但有一天，我突然得知，操纵这个电报的只是一个可怜虫，他每年只挣 1200 法郎，整天都在工作，不是像天文学家那样研究天空，也不是像钓鱼人那样凝视水面，甚至没有享受观察周围乡村的特权；他单调的生活全部用来观察他四到五里格之外的同类昆虫。”(4)

The telegraph is how news of Napoleon’s (fictional) escape from St. Helena reaches Paris in Napoleon in America.

在小说《拿破仑在美洲]》中，正是通过电报，拿破仑（虚构的）从圣赫勒拿岛逃脱的消息传到了巴黎。

THE TELEGRAPH OF CLAUDE CHAPPE - AN OPTICAL TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORK FOR THE XVIIIth CENTURY

克劳德・沙普的电报 ——18 世纪的光学通信网络

Prof. J-M. Dilhac

email: dilhac@laas.fr

(also with Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Toulouse)

ABSTRACT

Claude Chappe (1763 - 1805) invented a semaphore visual telegraph.

The lines between cities were composed by a series of towers (stations), 10 - 15 km apart, equipped with a pair of telescopes and a semaphore which beams were permitted discrete angular positions.

城市之间的线路由一系列相距 10 - 15 千米的塔楼（站点）组成，每个站点配备一对望远镜和一个信号旗，信号旗的臂杆可以处于不同的离散角度位置。

These positions were assigned to numeric symbols in connection with a code book.

这些位置与一本代码簿相关联，被赋予了数字符号。

Where the transmission of a message took days, it only needed tens of minutes with Chappe telegraph (individual symbols may be transmitted at a speed over 500 km/h!).

过去传递一条消息需要数天时间，而使用沙普电报只需几十分钟（单个符号的传输速度可达每小时 500 多千米！）。

Started during the French Revolution, the network grew to 556 stations covering 3000 miles of lines (5000 km), most of them in France.

该网络始于法国大革命期间，发展到拥有 556 个站点，线路长达 3000 英里（5000 千米），其中大部分站点位于法国。

However, cities like Amsterdam, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, Turin, Venice were also connected.

此外，阿姆斯特丹、布鲁塞尔、美因茨、米兰、都灵、威尼斯等城市也接入了该网络。

Small networks were also deployed in Algeria and Morocco, while a mobile network was used during the Crimea war.

阿尔及利亚和摩洛哥也部署了小型网络，克里米亚战争期间还使用了移动网络。

In 1855, it was finally replaced by electric telegraph.

1855 年，它最终被电报所取代。

The purpose of the presentation is first to present the technology of this optical telegraph, and to demonstrate the modernity of its principles.

本报告的目的首先是介绍这种光学电报的技术，并展示其原理的现代性。

Nevertheless, political and social implications will be described to show their strong similarities with the (supposed) implications of the World Wide Web.

此外，还将阐述其政治和社会影响，以显示其与万维网（假定的）影响的强烈相似之处。

More precisely, such issues as source coding, error detection and signal restoration, control and data signals, routing, regulation and fraud, dissemination of new social behaviours, will be addressed.

更确切地说，将探讨诸如信源编码、错误检测与信号恢复、控制和数据信号、路由、监管与欺诈、新社会行为的传播等问题。

INTRODUCTION

引言

10th of April 1814, Easter Day, 6 o’clock in the morning, the battle of Toulouse is waged between the French troops (41000 men) of Marshal Soult and the coalition (Portuguese, Spanish and British) troops (52000) of the Marquess of Wellington.

1814 年 4 月 10 日，复活节，清晨 6 点，苏尔特元帅率领的 4.1 万名法国军队与威灵顿侯爵率领的 5.2 万名联军（葡萄牙、西班牙和英国军队）在图卢兹展开战斗。

There will be no real winner: Soult will be forced to leave Toulouse with his troops the night of the 11th, but he will organize an excellent withdrawal like an exercise out of Sandhurst" [1].

这场战斗没有真正的赢家：苏尔特将于 11 日晚被迫率领部队撤离图卢兹，但他会组织一场出色的撤退，就像桑赫斯特军校的演习一样 [1]。

Wellington will enter the town the 12th, but the British losses are greater than those of the French, and Soult is about to join the army of general Suchet, maintaining a high fighting potential.

威灵顿将于 12 日进入该城，但英军的损失比法军更大，而且苏尔特即将与叙舍将军的部队会合，保持着较高的战斗力。

Therefore useless, about 320 French soldiers and 650 coalition soldiers were killed.

这场战斗毫无意义，约 320 名法国士兵和 650 名联军士兵阵亡。

Moreover, because communications took a long time, the battle of Toulouse took place four days after the abdication (6th April) of Emperor Napoleon I!

此外，由于通信耗时较长，图卢兹战役在拿破仑一世退位（4 月 6 日）四天后才打响！

Wellington and Soult were of course aware of the imminence of Napoleon’s abdication.

威灵顿和苏尔特当然知道拿破仑即将退位。

Messengers (an English colonel and a French colonel) arrived in Toulouse the 12th of April with the great news: the war was over!

4 月 12 日，信使（一名英国上校和一名法国上校）抵达图卢兹，带来了好消息：战争结束了！

The messengers had left Paris the 7th of April in the evening.

信使们于 4 月 7 日晚离开巴黎。

Because of the state of war, they needed nearly five days to reach Toulouse.

由于战争状态，他们花了近五天时间才到达图卢兹。

In normal circumstances, mail from Paris was delivered by postal coach (four days of travel) or mounted couriers (best travel time: three days).

在正常情况下，从巴黎来的邮件通过邮政马车（行程四天）或骑马信使（最快行程：三天）送达。

In both cases, communications would have been too slow for a cease fire before the battle.

在这两种情况下，通信速度都太慢，无法在战斗前实现停火。

However, since August 1794 (20 years ago!), a new communication means had been established in France.

然而，自 1794 年 8 月（20 年前！）以来，法国建立了一种新的通信方式。

It permitted the transmission of information at a speed over 500 km/h, when a postal coach mean speed was around 10 km/h.

它能够以超过每小时 500 千米的速度传输信息，而邮政马车的平均速度约为每小时 10 千米。

This new communication means was the optical telegraph of Claude Chappe.

这种新的通信方式就是克劳德・沙普的光学电报。

Unfortunately, at the fall of the First Empire, the line between Paris and Toulouse was not established yet.

不幸的是，在第一帝国覆灭时，巴黎和图卢兹之间的线路尚未建立。

The purpose of this paper is to present the technology of this optical telegraph, and to demonstrate the modernity of its principles.

本文的目的是介绍这种光学电报的技术，并展示其原理的现代性。

Before going into the technical details, it is worth mentioning that the battle of Toulouse could have been the last battle of the First Empire if Napoleon had not decided to return from Elba island.

在深入探讨技术细节之前，值得一提的是，如果拿破仑没有决定从厄尔巴岛返回，图卢兹战役可能就是第一帝国的最后一场战役。

Later will come the episodes of the Hundred Days and of course Waterloo.

随后发生了百日王朝和滑铁卢战役。

OPTICAL TELEGRAPHS BEFORE CHAPPE

沙普之前的光学电报

In this paragraph, we will only briefly consider permanent ground systems, operating over a large area, allowing two-way transmission of letters, words or phrases with a single sign.

在本段中，我们将仅简要介绍永久性地面系统，这种系统在大面积区域内运行，能够通过单个信号进行字母、单词或短语的双向传输。

A more comprehensive description of communication systems using messengers, pigeons, mirrors, flags, simple protocol fire beacons etc… used before Chappe telegraph can be found in [2].

关于在沙普电报之前使用的信使、信鸽、镜子、旗帜、简易烽火协议等通信系统的更全面描述，可参见 [2]。

The above methods dominated until the advent of Chappe’s invention.

在沙普发明之前，上述方法一直占据主导地位。

The first developments of a telegraph, for which written records exist, is due to Aeneas (350 BC) and Polybius (150 BC).

有书面记录的最早的电报发展要归功于埃涅阿斯（公元前 350 年）和波利比乌斯（公元前 150 年）。

The latter system was able to transmit more sophisticated messages than a simple alarm signal, by encoding the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet into signals using a torch telegraph.

波利比乌斯的系统能够通过火炬电报将希腊字母表中的 24 个字母编码成信号，从而传输比简单警报信号更复杂的信息。

Like Chappe’s design, transmission of a letter was done in two steps, by transmitting two numbers between 1 and 5.

与沙普的设计类似，传输一个字母需要分两步进行，即传输两个 1 到 5 之间的数字。

The first number was used to indicate which tablet of a set of five was to be used.

第一个数字用于指示要使用五块板中的哪一块。

Each tablet was labelled with five (or four) letters.

每块板上标有五个（或四个）字母。

The second number was used to indicate which letter was to be read on the selected tablet.

第二个数字用于指示在所选板上读取哪个字母。

Of course, relays forming a chain were used.

当然，还使用了形成链条的中继站。

Surprisingly, it will take nearly twenty centuries before some of these principles would be rediscovered.

令人惊讶的是，这些原理中的一些在近二十个世纪后才被重新发现。

From Charlemagne to George Washington, the main features of long distance (ground) communications were the same [3].

从查理曼大帝到乔治・华盛顿，长途（地面）通信的主要特征基本相同 [3]。

The invention of the telescope at dawn of the XVIIth century will foster new designs for telegraphic schemes [2] and will allow day time operation (on the contrary Chappe telegraph will never be operated at night).

17 世纪初望远镜的发明促进了电报方案的新设计 [2]，并使得电报可以在白天运行（相反，沙普电报从未在夜间运行过）。

But the first documented large-scale use will be that of Chappe’s, starting a continuous era, with no more gap like the above 2000 year period during which all previous progress was forgotten.

但有记录的首次大规模使用的是沙普的电报，它开启了一个连续的时代，不再有像上述长达 2000 年的间隔，在那段时间里之前所有的进步都被遗忘了。

This new era started with a period of nearly 60 years corresponding to optical telegraphs dominating long-distance communications.

这个新时代始于近 60 年的时期，在此期间光学电报主导了长途通信。

THE INVENTOR

发明家

Claude Chappe d’Auteroche was born in Brulon, France, in 1763.

克劳德・沙普・多泰罗什于 1763 年出生在法国的布鲁隆。

Claude Chappe initially planned on a career as a member of the clergy, but the French Revolution changed his projects.

克劳德・沙普最初计划成为神职人员，但法国大革命改变了他的计划。

He then concentrated on scientific work, including long-distance transmission of messages.

随后，他专注于科学工作，包括长途信息传输。

Most of his work was done with his brothers.

他的大部分工作是和他的兄弟们一起完成的。

They soon rediscovered that complicated messages could be sent using combinations of simple signals.

他们很快重新发现，可以通过简单信号的组合来发送复杂的信息。

In 1791 a first version of an optical semaphore was devised and successfully used.

1791 年，他们设计并成功使用了第一版光学信号旗。

However, a few more years will be needed to improve the semaphore design and the coding procedure, while efforts were made by the brothers to gain support from the new authorities.

然而，还需要几年时间来改进信号旗的设计和编码程序，同时兄弟几个努力争取新当局的支持。

In 1794 Claude Chappe was finally put on a government salary.

1794 年，克劳德・沙普终于获得了政府的薪水。

At this stage it is worth remembering that the word telegraph (telegraph, n. - means of sending messages; v. - send a message) comes from French télégraphe.

在这个阶段，值得记住的是，“telegraph”（电报，名词 - 发送消息的手段；动词 - 发送消息）这个词来自法语 “télégraphe”。

At first, Claude Chappe wanted to call his invention tachygraphe from the Greek for “fast writer”, but he was counselled to decide in favour of télégraphe (from “far writer τηλεγραφω”).

起初，克劳德・沙普想把他的发明称为 “tachygraphe”，在希腊语中意为 “快速书写者”，但有人建议他选择 “télégraphe”（来自希腊语 “far writer τηλεγραφω”，意为 “远距离书写者”）。

Claude Chappe committed suicide in 1805, at a time his invention was already a success, to avoid “life’s worries” such as criticism and claims from other inventors and competitors.

1805 年，克劳德・沙普自杀身亡，当时他的发明已经取得成功，他这样做是为了避免 “生活的烦恼”，比如来自其他发明家和竞争对手的批评和索赔。

After his death, his brothers Abraham, Ignace and Pierre will be commissioned to organize and chair the telegraph administration.

他去世后，他的兄弟亚伯拉罕、伊格纳茨和皮埃尔受委托组织并主持电报管理工作。

THE TELEGRAPH

电报

The mechanical design

机械设计

After early designs using synchronized clocks, and a failed trial to use electricity as a medium for transmission (because no efficient insulator could be found for the electric wires [6]), Chappe devised a semaphore.

在早期尝试使用同步时钟设计以及使用电作为传输介质的试验失败（因为找不到用于电线的有效绝缘体 [6]）之后，沙普设计了一种信号旗。

Preliminary experiments, conducted in 1792, made Claude Chappe and his three brothers convinced that linear arms were more visible in a distance than a shutter semaphore [6] like the one Abraham Edelcrantz was about to built in Sweden in 1794 [2].

1792 年进行的初步实验使克劳德・沙普和他的三个兄弟相信，线性臂杆在远处比百叶窗式信号旗 [6] 更易被看到，比如亚伯拉罕・埃德尔克兰茨 1794 年在瑞典即将建造的那种 [2]。

Therefore, the final design consisted of a long (4 m x 30 cm) rotating bar (the regulator) with two smaller rotating arms (the indicators) on its ends, counterbalanced with metallic weights.

因此，最终的设计是一根长（4 米 ×30 厘米）的旋转杆（调节杆），两端各有两个较小的旋转臂（指示臂），并配有金属配重以保持平衡。

While the regulator could be oriented horizontally, obliquely or vertically, the indicators could be independently oriented in one of seven positions 45 degrees apart, giving a total of 98 combinations.

调节杆可以水平、倾斜或垂直放置，指示臂可以独立地指向七个位置中的一个，每个位置间隔 45 度，总共可以产生 98 种组合。

Regulator and indicators were black painted to increase contrast against the sky.

调节杆和指示臂都被漆成黑色，以增加与天空的对比度。

Abraham-Louis Breguet, a famous clock maker, designed and built a control mechanism allowing an operator, using a scaled-down model of the semaphore to remotely align the full-scaled one from the inside of a building, using pulleys and ropes.

著名钟表匠亚伯拉罕 - 路易・宝玑设计并制造了一种控制装置，使操作员能够在建筑物内通过信号旗的缩小模型，利用滑轮和绳索远程校准全尺寸的信号旗。

The figure on the right shows an example of semaphore design. It is reproduced from [8].

右图展示了一种信号旗设计的示例。它取自 [8]。

The identical positions of the semaphore and of the scaled-down model are visible.

信号旗和缩小模型的相同位置清晰可见。

The two telescopes, each aiming at nearby stations, are not shown.

图中未显示分别瞄准附近站点的两个望远镜。

The code

编码

It was soon discovered that it was impossible to transmit without using control signals and an efficient coding procedure, because errors were inevitable in the process of transmission.

很快人们发现，不使用控制信号和有效的编码程序就无法进行传输，因为在传输过程中错误是不可避免的。

After 1795 and a first use of a signalling code which appeared to need improvements [6], transmissions were done by using 92 combinations of the regulator and indicators.

1795 年首次使用了一种似乎需要改进的信号代码 [6] 之后，人们开始使用调节杆和指示臂的 92 种组合进行传输。

In brief, the regulator could be positioned only vertically or horizontally, and the indicators could be set at angles in increments of 45 degrees, excluding the position where an indicator was extending the regulator. This gave (7×7×2 = 98) positions, reduced to 92 signals by reserving six signals for special indications.

简而言之，调节杆仅能垂直或水平放置，指示臂可按 45 度的增量设置角度，但指示臂与调节杆伸展成一条直线的位置除外。这样就有 (7×7×2 = 98) 个位置，通过预留 6 个信号用于特殊指示，实际使用的信号减少到 92 个。

The 92 positions were used to identify in one step a first set (division) of 92 symbols (the alphabet, numbers from zero to nine, some frequently used syllables), or in two steps, first the page number of another 92 - page code book (also called a division), and then one symbol (syllables, words, phrases) among the 92 symbols listed on each page. 92 pages time 92 numbered signs, or 8464, means 8464 signs to be transmitted by positioning the semaphore arms twice, transmitting a code pair. After 1799 extra divisions were added giving a total of five.

这 92 个位置可用于一步识别第一组（分类）92 个符号（字母、0 到 9 的数字、一些常用音节），或者分两步，先确定另一本 92 页代码簿（也称为分类）的页码，然后从每页列出的 92 个符号中选择一个符号（音节、单词、短语）。92 页乘以 92 个编号符号，即 8464，意味着通过两次调整信号旗臂的位置传输一个代码对，可传输 8464 个符号。1799 年后又增加了额外的分类，总数达到 5 个。

The above six signals reserved for special applications were used to identify the division. The purpose of this system was to save time, by using as few semaphore positions (or symbols) possible to transmit information. It would correspond today to source coding.

上述预留用于特殊用途的 6 个信号用于识别分类。这个系统的目的是通过使用尽可能少的信号旗位置（或符号）来传输信息，从而节省时间。这在如今相当于信源编码。

Basically the formation of a signal was done in two steps and three movements (the French expression “en deux temps et trois mouvements” still meaning today “rapidly done” comes from it). A signal was meaningless as long as the regulator was oblique (left or right), first with the indicators folded in, and then turned to their position (first step consisting of two movements). The left oblique was used for message signals (today the payload) and the right oblique for control signals (today the overhead).

基本上，信号的形成分两步三个动作完成（法语表达 “en deux temps et trois mouvements”，如今仍表示 “快速完成”，就来源于此）。只要调节杆处于倾斜（向左或向右）状态，信号就无意义，首先将指示臂折叠，然后转到相应位置（第一步包含两个动作）。左倾斜用于表示消息信号（如今称为有效载荷），右倾斜用于表示控制信号（如今称为开销）。

The operator had then to verify that the next station was correctly reproducing the signal (corresponding today to restoration at the bit level). This was considered as one of the most important rule to which the operators had to conform. The same error checking was to be made after the second step below. The regulator was then turned to an horizontal or vertical position (second step and third movement). Two examples (from a code table preserved at the Postal Museum in Paris and reproduced in [2]) of the formation of control signals are given in the next table.

然后，操作员必须确认下一个站点正确复制了信号（这在如今相当于比特级别的恢复）。这被认为是操作员必须遵守的最重要规则之一。在下面的第二步之后也要进行同样的错误检查。然后将调节杆转到水平或垂直位置（第二步和第三个动作）。下表给出了两个控制信号形成的示例（取自保存在巴黎邮政博物馆的代码表，并在 [2] 中转载）。

Each received signal had to be recorded in a book. Additionally, time (hour and minute) was to be recorded for control signals.

每个接收到的信号都必须记录在本子上。此外，控制信号还需记录时间（小时和分钟）。

	urgence Paris 巴黎紧急情况	1/2 h suspension of activity 活动暂停半小时
step 1/first movement the regulators are folders in only if the following station has correctly copied the previous signal third movement 步骤 1 / 第一个动作仅当下一站点正确复制了前一个信号时，调节杆才折叠（第三个动作）
step 1/second movement the indicators are set in position by copying the signal of the preceding station 步骤 1 / 第二个动作通过复制前一站点的信号，将指示臂设置到相应位置
set 2/third movement the regulator is set in position only if the preceding station has done so, confirming that the copied signal is correct, and if the following station has correctly copied the second movement 步骤 2 / 第三个动作仅当前一站点已完成此操作，确认复制的信号正确，且下一站点已正确复制第二个动作时，才将调节杆设置到相应位置

Performances

性能

From various sources it appears that the duration of transmission was at best about 20 to 30 s per symbol per station for good weather conditions. The symbol propagation speed over long distances is more difficult to assess, data are not always consistent. From [7] it appears that at Paris, signals were received from Lille in two minutes, from Brest in six minutes, and from Toulon in twelve minutes. These are very probably the best results obtained with a fine weather. Routine transmissions were probably slower.

从各种资料来看，在天气良好的情况下，每个站点传输每个符号的时间最快约为 20 到 30 秒。长距离的符号传播速度更难评估，数据并不总是一致。从 [7] 中可知，在巴黎，从里尔接收信号需要两分钟，从布雷斯特接收信号需要六分钟，从土伦接收信号需要十二分钟。这些很可能是在天气晴朗时取得的最佳结果。日常传输可能会更慢。

During the transmission of a dispatch, with the exception of very short ones, all stations of a line were simultaneously in activity. However, it is worth saying that these signals were travelling faster than ever before, and that these high speeds allowed a time synchronisation of the network, with obviously an accuracy of the order of a few minutes, at a time where local solar time only was officially used, and was therefore different from one city to another (nearly one hour difference between Strasbourg and Brest).

在传输急件时，除了极短的急件外，一条线路上的所有站点都同时处于工作状态。然而，值得一提的是，这些信号的传播速度比以往任何时候都快，而且这些高速使得网络能够进行时间同步，其精度明显在几分钟左右，而当时官方只使用当地太阳时，因此不同城市之间存在差异（斯特拉斯堡和布雷斯特之间相差近一小时）。

THE NETWORK

网络

The line of about 230 km between Paris and Lille was the first of its kind. It was completed in seven months and started operation in May 1794. The second line, from Paris to Strasbourg, was completed in 1798. In 1799 Napoleon Bonaparte seized power, and soon ordered the extension of the network, including a line across the Channel (using larger semaphores) in preparation of a later forgotten invasion of England.

巴黎和里尔之间约 230 千米的线路是同类线路中的第一条。它在 7 个月内建成，并于 1794 年 5 月开始运营。第二条线路，从巴黎到斯特拉斯堡，于 1798 年建成。1799 年，拿破仑・波拿巴掌权，很快下令扩建网络，包括一条横跨英吉利海峡的线路（使用更大的信号旗），为后来被遗忘的入侵英国计划做准备。

A line consisted of stations roughly 10 to 15 km apart, either using belfries or church towers to place the telegraphs, or necessitating newly erected buildings. In each station, two operators (“stationnaires”) were operating the telegraph. Operators did only know the control code. Long lines were divided into shorter divisions at the ends of which messages were decoded, recorded in books, purged of transmission errors if that was necessary and possible, and then coded and transmitted again. This corresponds to what is done today at terminal equipment performing error detection and correction.

一条线路由相距约 10 到 15 千米的站点组成，这些站点要么利用钟楼或教堂塔楼放置电报设备，要么需要新建建筑物。每个站点有两名操作员（“stationnaires”）操作电报。操作员只知道控制代码。长线路被分成较短的分段，在分段终点，消息被解码、记录在本子上，如有必要且可能的话，会清除传输错误，然后重新编码并再次传输。这与如今终端设备进行错误检测和纠正的操作相对应。

Around the years 1800’s, four lines were connecting Paris to major cities: that was the beginning of a real network. New lines will be constructed until 1846 [2].

大约在 19 世纪初，有四条线路将巴黎与主要城市连接起来：这标志着真正网络的开端。新的线路一直建设到 1846 年 [2]。

The figure below shows the telegraph network full extension. It is worth mentioning that all these lines have not been operated simultaneously, such as the lines in Italy, Belgium, Germany and Holland which disappeared after Napoleon’s fall.

下图展示了电报网络的全面扩展。值得一提的是，并非所有这些线路都同时运营，例如意大利、比利时、德国和荷兰的线路在拿破仑倒台后就消失了。

Some division stations were network nodes with more than two lines meeting. Each line terminated at a separate telegraph, and the messages were decoded before being passed on “manually”. Moreover, the network was essentially exhibiting a star topology, and the necessity to build a partially meshed network finally appeared. That was incompletely done by the building of the Bordeaux - Avignon line, a few years before the end of the network.

一些分段站点是网络节点，有两条以上的线路交汇。每条线路在单独的电报设备处终止，消息在 “手动” 传递之前要先解码。此外，该网络本质上呈现星型拓扑结构，最终出现了构建部分网状网络的需求。在网络末期的几年前，波尔多 - 阿维尼翁线路的建设部分满足了这一需求，但并不完全。

A capability for two way communication was of course compulsory, and control signals were used to indicate a degree of priority, to deal with messages travelling in opposite directions. Two levels of priority were used: “activity” (“activité”) and “priority” (“urgence”), given the fact that messages from Paris had precedence over that of other origin of equivalent priority level. Rate control methods and codes asking for garbled information to be sent again correctly, were also used [2].

双向通信能力当然是必不可少的，控制信号用于指示优先级，以处理相反方向传输的消息。使用两个优先级级别：“活动”（“activité”）和 “优先”（“urgence”），因为来自巴黎的消息在同等优先级下具有优先权。还使用了速率控制方法和要求重新正确发送乱码信息的代码 [2]。

During the reign of Louis - Philippe (1830 - 1848) a simplified version (the indicators only were rotated and the heavy regulator beam was fixed in a horizontal position) of Chappe telegraph was installed in Algeria (three lines) and Morocco which were ruled by France at that time [5].

在路易 - 菲利普统治时期（1830 - 1848），一种简化版的沙普电报（仅旋转指示臂，沉重的调节杆固定在水平位置）被安装在当时由法国统治的阿尔及利亚（三条线路）和摩洛哥 [5]。

THE END

终结

The first news transmitted by Chappe telegraph was the victory of French troops at Quesnoy (1794); the last one is supposed to be that of another victory, the fall of Sebastopol (1855).

沙普电报传输的第一条消息是 1794 年法国军队在凯努瓦的胜利；最后一条消息据说是另一场胜利，即 1855 年塞瓦斯托波尔的陷落。

Indeed, during the Crimea war, the mobility of specially designed Chappe semaphores was very appreciated: a station was built in 20 minutes [7], much faster than long distance electric telegraph lines which were also used for more permanent links during that war.

事实上，在克里米亚战争期间，专门设计的沙普信号旗的机动性备受赞赏：一个站点可以在 20 分钟内建成 [7]，这比当时也用于更永久性连接的长途电报线路快得多。

Claude Chappe telegraph was in use for 61 years. It has been the first and largest network using optical telegraph, in continuous operation over more than sixty years.

克劳德・沙普的电报使用了 61 年。它是第一个也是最大的光学电报网络，持续运行了六十多年。

However, the success of the optical telegraph was limited because it was difficult, and therefore expensive, to run, limited to government use, ignored by most of the public, unable to operate at night, vulnerable to fog, mist, and operator misbehaviour, and above all less efficient than the electric telegraph.

然而，光学电报的成功是有限的，因为它运行困难且成本高昂，仅限政府使用，大多数公众对其忽视，无法在夜间运行，容易受到雾、霾和操作员不当行为的影响，最重要的是，它不如电报高效。

Nevertheless, optical telegraphs had proven that simple signs could be used to send complex messages, therefore paving the way for electrical communication means.

尽管如此，光学电报证明了简单的符号可以用来发送复杂的信息，从而为电气通信手段铺平了道路。

In France, the decision was made in 1846 to replace the optical telegraph by the electric one (installed between Paris and Lille). As a comparison, the first installation of an electric telegraph was done in 1837 in England.

1846 年，法国决定用电报取代光学电报（安装在巴黎和里尔之间）。相比之下，英国在 1837 年首次安装了电报。

The superiority of novel methods, such as the electric telegraph, is often difficult to establish. In this case, the new telegraph needed a physical connection between stations that appeared to be a drawback considering sabotage, and France was reluctant to abandon the old technology in the field of which she was leading.

新方法（如电报）的优越性往往难以确立。在这种情况下，新的电报需要站点之间的物理连接，考虑到破坏行为，这似乎是一个缺点，而且法国不愿意放弃其在该领域领先的旧技术。

Surprisingly, at first, the electric telegraph in France will consist of a small electrically activated replica of Chappe semaphore, the codes being transmitted using electricity! They will be replaced by Morse telegraph in 1855.

令人惊讶的是，起初，法国的电报是一个小型的电动沙普信号旗复制品，代码通过电来传输！1855 年，它们被莫尔斯电报所取代。

All contemporary authors [5, 7, 8] agree that when semaphores were superseded by electrical wires, they were rapidly forgotten. The reasons for that are detailed below.

所有当代作者 [5, 7, 8] 都认为，当信号旗被电线取代时，它们很快就被遗忘了。原因如下所述。

OPTICAL TELEGRAPH AND THE INTERNET

光学电报与互联网

Surprisingly, optical telegraph has much in common with the most recent means of communication, in which there are echoes of primitive semaphore network.

令人惊讶的是，光学电报与最新的通信手段有很多共同之处，在最新的通信手段中可以看到原始信号旗网络的影子。

Tom Standage wrote [3] that Chappe telegraph was “the mother of all networks” and that, at the end, the lines of optical telegraph formed a “sort of mechanical Internet.”

汤姆・斯丹迪奇写道 [3]，沙普电报是 “所有网络之母”，最终，光学电报线路形成了一种 “机械互联网”。

Indeed, there are a lot of similarities between the two, the first analogy being the supposed ability to disseminate new political concepts such as, in Chappe’s case, the ideas of the French Revolution.

事实上，两者之间有很多相似之处，第一个相似点是它们都具有传播新政治理念的能力，就沙普电报而言，它传播了法国大革命的思想。

The scientist Joseph Lakanal, member of the National Convention, wrote about the potential of the telegraph [3] “What brilliant destiny do science and the arts not reserve for a republic which, by the genius of its inhabitants, is called to become the nation to instruct Europe.”

国民公会成员、科学家约瑟夫・拉卡纳尔在谈到电报的潜力时写道 [3]：“对于一个凭借其居民的天赋，注定要成为教导欧洲的国家的共和国来说，科学和艺术怎能不为它储备辉煌的命运呢？”

The telegraph was also considered a great achievement with implications in Geopolitics [4]: “The capital of distant nations might be united by chains of posts, and the settling of those disputes which at present take up months or years might then be accomplished in as many hours… Sixty years later, the electric telegraph global network was similarly expected to result in world peace [3]. Today again"cyber gurus"consider Internet as a means for"computer - aided peace”[3]. Unfortunately"the potential of new technologies to change things for the better is invariably overstated, while the ways in which they will make things worse are usually unforeseen" [3].

电报也被视为一项在地缘政治方面具有重要意义的伟大成就 [4]：“遥远国家的首都或许能通过一连串的驿站连接起来，如今需要数月乃至数年才能解决的争端，届时或许几个小时就能搞定……60 年后，全球电报网络同样被寄予带来世界和平的期望 [3]。如今，‘网络专家’们又将互联网视作实现‘计算机辅助和平’的一种手段 [3]。遗憾的是，‘新技术改善事物的潜力总是被高估，而它们使事情变糟的方式却往往难以预见’ [3]。

On another topic, and like Internet outstripping the lawmakers, optical telegraph asked for new laws and regulations: a fraud related to the introduction, into regular messages, of information about the stock market, was discovered in 1836. The telegraph operators involved were using steganography (a specific pattern of errors added to the message) to transmit the stock market data to Bordeaux. In 1837, they were tried but acquitted, having not violated any explicit law. The criminals were one step ahead.

另一方面，和互联网发展速度超过立法者的立法速度类似，光学电报也催生出了新的法律法规需求：1836 年，人们发现了一起将股市信息混入常规信息传输的欺诈案件。涉案的电报操作员利用隐写术（在消息中添加特定错误模式）将股市数据传输到波尔多。1837 年，他们受到审判，但因未违反任何明确法律而被无罪释放。犯罪分子总是比法律先行一步。

However, considering the regulation issue, there is a great difference between optical telegraph and Internet as explained below. Chappe wanted to extend the use of its telegraph to private and business use, or at least general interest purposes such as meteorology but, with the exception of the weekly transmission of national lottery numbers, its use was initially limited by Napoleon to military and administrative use. Nevertheless, it was later utilized to transmit stock market information. However, fearing a proliferation of private telegraphs, the French government passed a bill in 1837 banning private networks. This law will remain virtually unchanged until the end of the (XX^{th}) century. These last points make a great difference between Internet and electric telegraph on one side, and optical telegraph on the other: the impact of the latter on everyday life of most of French people was more than weak. Only a few officials were implicated. This explains why such an important topic as the use of codes for private messages, and the limits imposed by many governments on the complexity of the encryption, was not an issue for Chappe telegraph, as it will soon be with the electric telegraph and still is with Internet.

然而，在监管问题上，光学电报和互联网存在巨大差异，如下所述。沙普希望将其电报的使用范围扩展到私人和商业领域，或者至少用于气象学等大众关注的领域，但除了每周传输国家彩票号码外，拿破仑最初将其使用限制在军事和行政用途。尽管如此，后来它还是被用于传输股市信息。然而，由于担心私人电报泛滥，法国政府在 1837 年通过了一项法案，禁止私人网络。这项法律在 20 世纪末之前几乎没有变化。这些方面使得互联网和电报为一方，光学电报为另一方，两者之间存在显著差异：光学电报对大多数法国人的日常生活影响微乎其微，仅涉及少数官员。这就解释了为什么诸如私人信息编码的使用，以及许多政府对加密复杂性的限制这类重要话题，对沙普电报来说并不是问题，但对电报和如今的互联网而言，却很快成了问题。

CONCLUSION

结论

Technically speaking, in retrospect, the system may look simple, but it was a highly sophisticated technical tool using, as already said, source coding, control signals, synchronisation, flow control protocols, i.e. principles used in modern communication networks. Today, we are told that we are in the midst of a communication revolution (this is termed chronocentricity by some authors [3]) but optical telegraph, for those involved, was much more revolutionary. Let us consider for instance the case of civil or military officials, in remote provinces of France, who found their relative independence from Paris undermined by the optical telegraph, in a way no other telecommunication means will reproduce.

从技术角度回顾，这个系统可能看起来简单，但它实际上是一个高度复杂的技术工具。如前所述，它运用了信源编码、控制信号、同步、流量控制协议等现代通信网络所使用的原理。如今，我们常听说自己正处于一场通信革命之中（一些作者将其称为 “时间中心主义” [3] ），但对于当时相关的人们来说，光学电报带来的变革要大得多。例如，想想法国偏远省份的文职或军事官员，他们发现光学电报削弱了他们相对于巴黎的独立性，而这种情况是其他任何通信手段都无法再现的。

What is left today of the optical telegraphs? As already said, once they were superseded by electric telegraphs, their history was forgotten as most people’s life had not been directly affected, while materials soon disappeared. All that is left today is a few street - names (like “rue du télégraphe”). However, it is worth saying that even if modern data telecommunication networks are faster, bigger, more flexible and reliable, they are not intrinsically very different. They still use basic methods developed by men born and educated in the XVII century.

如今，光学电报还留下了什么呢？如前所述，一旦它们被电报取代，其历史就被遗忘了，因为大多数人的生活并未受到直接影响，而且相关设备也很快消失了。如今仅剩下一些街道名称（比如 “rue du télégraphe”，即电报街）。然而，值得一提的是，尽管现代数据通信网络速度更快、规模更大、更灵活且更可靠，但它们本质上并没有太大不同。它们仍然在使用 17 世纪出生并接受教育的人所开发的基本方法。

The optical telegraph arrived in Toulouse in 1834, 20 years after the battle!

光学电报在图卢兹战役 20 年后的 1834 年才抵达图卢兹！

BIBLIOGRAPHY

参考文献

A detailed information in English about optical telegraphs is available in [2]. This comprehensive work has been a very valuable source for the writing of this paper. The first chapter of [3] is a good summary of the above, but most of the book deals with electrical telegraph.

关于光学电报的详细英文信息可在 [2] 中查阅。这本综合性著作是撰写本文的重要参考资料。[3] 的第一章对上述内容进行了很好的总结，但该书大部分内容是关于电报的。

The most important contemporary information is contained in Ignace Chappe’s book reprinted by Abraham Chappe [6]. Ignace and Abraham are of course two of Claude Chappe’s brothers. Some others interesting sources [7, 8] are available on line from the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BNF) at http://gallica.bnf.fr, ref. [8] containing some errors. On another topic, documents and materials on Chappe telegraph may be seen in Paris at the Postal Museum (Musée de la Poste) and at Musée des Arts et Métiers, also in Paris.

最重要的当代信息收录在伊格纳茨・沙普所著、由亚伯拉罕・沙普再版的书中 [6]。伊格纳茨和亚伯拉罕当然是克劳德・沙普的两个兄弟。其他一些有趣的资料来源 [7, 8] 可在法国国家图书馆（BNF）的网站 http://gallica.bnf.fr 上查阅，[8] 中存在一些错误。另外，在巴黎的邮政博物馆（Musée de la Poste）和同样位于巴黎的工艺博物馆，可以看到关于沙普电报的文献和资料。

[1] 10 Avril 1814 1a bataille de Toulouse, J - P. Escalettes, editions Loubatières, 1999 (in French, but with an extended abstract of 44 pages in English by Kathleen Kerlie - Rouffet).
[1] 《1814 年 4 月 10 日图卢兹战役》，J - P. 埃斯卡莱特，卢巴蒂埃出版社，1999 年（法语版，但凯瑟琳・凯尔利 - 鲁费特撰写了长达 44 页的英文扩展摘要）。

[2] The early history of data network, G. J. Holzmann, B. Pehrson, IEEE Computer Society Press, 1995.
[2] 《数据网络早期历史》，G. J. 霍尔兹曼、B. 佩尔松，IEEE 计算机学会出版社，1995 年。

[3] The Victorian Internet, T. Standage, Walker and company, 1998.
[3] 《维多利亚时代的互联网》，T. 斯丹迪奇，沃克公司，1998 年。

[4] Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1797, cited by [3].
[4] 《大英百科全书》，1797 年，引自 [3]。

[5] Les contemporains, Barlo, pp 1 - 16, 1906 (in French).
[5] 《当代人》，巴洛，1 - 16 页，1906 年（法语版）。

[6] Histoire de la télégraphie, Ignace Chappe, 1840 (in French).
[6] 《电报史》，伊格纳茨・沙普，1840 年（法语版）。

[7] La télégraphie historique, Alexis Belloc, Firmin - Didot, 1894 (in French).
[7] 《历史上的电报》，阿列克西・贝洛克，菲尔曼 - 迪多出版社，1894 年（法语版）。

[8] Les merveilles de la science: télégraphie aérienne. Louis Figuier, Iouvet, 1870 (in French).
[8] 《科学奇观：空中电报》，路易・菲吉耶，尤韦出版社，1870 年（法语版）。

拿破仑时代的 “信息战争”: 19 世纪初法国的查普可视信号系统（Chappe telegraph）

魔晶石

发布于 2022-03-08 21:45 ，编辑于 2022-03-10 08:19

拿破仑战争期间法国使用的信号传送系统是一种基于信号标的可视系统。当法国大革命期间引入查普信号系统后，其以大大减少消息传播所需的时间，彻底改变了通信。虽然信号系统的价格昂贵，无法在夜间和恶劣天气下运行，但仍被使用了 60 多年，并为 19 世纪后期引入更有效的电报铺平了道路。

查普的发明

拿破仑的信号系统是由克劳德・查普（Claude Chappe）发明的。

查普于 1763 年 12 月 25 日出生于布隆（Brûlon），最初从事宗教工作。当他于 1783 年大学毕业时，成为一名值得称赞的住持，并在巴黎附近获得了两份俸职。查普对科学有着长期的兴趣（他的叔叔，天文学家 Jean-Baptiste Chappe d’Auteroche 以观察金星凌日而闻名），所以他用这些钱在家里建立了一个实验室。他进行了物理实验，并撰写了有关结果的论文。

随着法国大革命对教堂的镇压，查普失去了他的俸职。他回到 Brûlon，转而全职从事科学工作。1790 年初，他开始与他的兄弟们合作开发长距离信号系统。查普尝试了不同的设计，尝试了各种凭借电，声音和烟的方法。他最终确定了一个系统，其中望远镜被用来观察视觉信号，然后再将之破译。可视信号系统的历史可以追溯到两千多年前，以水力信号（古希腊使用），火炬和烟雾信号的形式出现，但在现代世界中尚未大规模使用。

1791 年 3 月 2 日，查普进行了第一次公开演示，在大约 16 公里（10 英里）外的 Brûlon 和 Parcé 之间传递了一条信息。信息是：“如果你成功了，你很快就会沐浴在荣耀中。”

除了荣耀，查普更需要钱。幸运的是，他的兄弟伊格纳斯很快当选为巴黎新一届立法议会的议员。伊格纳斯安排克劳德于 1792 年 3 月 24 日在议会上发表讲话。除此之外，克劳德还指出了他的系统在向边境发送命令方面是多么有用，当一个月后法国对普鲁士和奥地利宣战时，这一点变得特别重要。

1792 年 9 月，立法议会被解散，取而代之的是国民公会，伊格纳斯没有被选上。但到那时，查普在立法者中已经拥有了支持者。1793 年 8 月 4 日，国民公会批准了一笔资金，用于建造一条从巴黎到里尔的基站线，该线路向北距离奥属尼德兰约 200 公里。查普被授予 “信息工程师” 的头衔和薪水。他继续改进他的设计。

1794 年 8 月 15 日，第一条官方信息沿线路发往巴黎，报告了重新夺回凯努瓦的消息：“奥地利的 3000 驻军奴隶已经放下武器，并自行决定投降。” 消息在战斗结束后大约一个小时的时间到达。而信使还需要 10 个小时才能到达。

1794 年 10 月，国民公会授权建造第二条线路，连接巴黎和斯特拉斯堡。这于 1798 年 5 月完成。同年晚些时候，巴黎和布列斯特之间也开通了一条线路。

查普信号系统的工作原理

克劳德・查普（Claude Chappe）最初称他的发明为 tachygraphe（来自希腊语，意为 “快速的写手”），但被说服将这个名字改为 telegraph（“远程写手”），这个名字由法国政治家安德烈・弗朗索瓦・米奥特・德・梅利托（André François Miot de Mélito）创造。

信号站相距约 10 至 15 公里，在彼此的视线范围内，要么位于已有的高处，如钟楼，要么位于为此专门建造的塔楼上。每个塔都配备了两个望远镜 —— 一个指向线路上最近的信号站，另一个指向线路另一方最近的信号站 —— 以及一个查普称之为信号标（semaphore）的装置。后者由两个可移动的木制臂杆组成，并由一个长且可移动的木制横杆（称为调节器）连接。横杆和臂杆用铁块平衡。它们被漆成黑色，以增加其与天空的对比度。

系统的基本结构

横杆可以垂直或水平放置（当它处于倾斜或对角线位置时，它不会传输信号）。每个臂杆可以设置成在七个任意的角度，每个角度相距 45 度。这产生了总共 98 个（2 x 7 x 7）独特的位置。为控制信号保留了六个位置，留下了 92 个密码信号（字母表中的字母，数字，常用的音节）的位置。

不同动作所传递的不同信息

1795 年，一本 92 页的密码本问世，以及一个两步式的信令系统。第一个信号指示了代码簿的页面；第二个信号表示该页面上的具体哪一行（单个单词，缩写，句子等，编号从 1 到 92）。这意味着可以传输 8464 种（92 x 92）代码。后来的改进最终产生了 40000 个代码。

每个信号站由两名操作员组成。钟表制造商亚伯拉罕 - 路易・宝玑（Abraham-Louis Breguet）设计和制造的控制机械允许操作员使用滑轮和绳索，通过信号系统的等比例模型，从建筑物内部调整臂杆和横杆。

信号装置的基本结构，可见滑轮与绳索

操作员通过一系列位置移动臂杆，在代码中拼写出一条消息。下一座塔的操作员通过望远镜读取信息，然后将其复制，并将其传递到下一座塔。操作员必须验证下一站是否正确再现了每个信号，从而降低了传输错误的风险。编码和解码只发生在终点站和分站（每 10 到 15 站）。在中间站，操作员只需在不知道代码的情况下重复信号。在分站编码和解码意味着，当天气条件遮挡视线时，信使可以将信息传送到天气更好的分站，并从那里重新传输信息。特殊信号意味着消息的优先级，这在消息朝反方向传播时是有利的。在具有同等优先权的情况下，首先传输来自巴黎的报文。

天气晴朗时，每个站每个符号的传输时间为 20-30 秒。1823 年，一家报纸报道：

在巴黎，通过三十三台信号站，可以在三分钟内从加来接收消息；从里尔传来只需两分钟，通过二十二个信号站；六分半钟的时间，斯特拉斯堡的消息便通过四十四个信号站送达；从土伦出发，经过 100 个信号站，20 分钟可送达消息；布雷斯特的消息，八分钟便可通过六十四个信号站送达。

这与邮差的平均速度，10 公里 / 小时形成了鲜明对比。

拿破仑统治下的信号系统

1799 年，拿破仑・波拿巴通过政变夺取了政权。查普面见了拿破仑，提议将信号系统用于商业。他建议用它来传递每日商品价格和国家新闻，但拿破仑只同意一种民用用途：每周传输国营彩票的结果。

拿破仑认为信号系统对军事和行政目的更有用。他下令延长该网络，包括一条通往布洛涅的线路，为他计划入侵英格兰做准备。1801 年，他要求克劳德・查普的兄弟亚伯拉罕设计一个能够跨越英吉利海峡传输信号的信号站。查普在 Belleville 和 Saint-Martin-du-Terre 之间 —— 也就是是海峡的最短距离，建造并测试了一个原型站（带有超大信号装置）。一个大型信号站在布洛涅建成，但拿破仑的入侵并未发生。

在拿破仑的统治下，巴黎 - 里尔的线路于 1802 年延伸至布鲁塞尔，并于 1809 年延伸至安特卫普。1804 年，拿破仑下令修建一条从巴黎经里昂到米兰的线路。其他欧洲国家，包括瑞典，英国，丹麦和葡萄牙，受此影响，也开发自己的信号系统，或者采用查普的设计。

与此同时，克劳德・查普（Claude Chappe）变得越来越沮丧，因为竞争对手声称自己发明了更好的信号系统，或者声称在他之前就发明了它。就连宝玑也坚持认为，他对查普设计所作的贡献比他实际所得到的赞誉还应更多。1805 年 1 月 23 日，查普跳入巴黎报文管理局大楼外的一口井中自杀身亡。时年 41 岁。

在 1809 年的战役中，拿破仑试图利用此信号系统从远处指挥他的军队。他派他的参谋长路易 - 亚历山大・贝尔蒂埃（Louis-Alexandre Berthier）在斯特拉斯堡建立了帝国总部。4 月 10 日，拿破仑向贝尔蒂埃发出命令，告诉他去奥格斯堡，如果奥地利人在 4 月 15 日之前进攻，将部队集中在奥格斯堡和多瑙沃思，让他们准备行军，并派遣拿破仑的卫队和马匹前往斯图加特。不幸的是，消息被大雾推迟，直到 4 月 16 日才到达贝尔蒂埃。拿破仑还通过快递与贝尔蒂埃通信，这导致了进一步的混乱，因为根据传输的形式，消息会不按顺序到达。贝尔蒂埃最后告诉拿破仑，他需要亲自参战指挥。

1810 年，电报系统扩展到威尼斯和阿姆斯特丹，并于 1813 年扩展到美因茨。1811 年，信号系统被用来宣布拿破仑的儿子出生。1812 年，拿破仑要求亚伯拉罕・查普设计一种移动信号系统，他可以在俄国战役中随身携带，但这被证明是行不通的。

拿破仑统治时期可是信号系统线路

不幸的是，巴黎和法国南部的图卢兹之间没有该系统。这意味着在拿破仑退位四天后的 1814 年 4 月 10 日，在苏尔特元帅领导的法国军队与威灵顿公爵领导的英国，西班牙和葡萄牙联军之间还发生了图卢兹会战 —— 约有 1，000 人丧生，7，000 多人受伤。4 月 7 日，一名法国上校和一名英国上校带着战争结束的消息离开巴黎，但他们直到 4 月 12 日才到达图卢兹。

拿破仑之后的信号系统

虽然拿破仑倒台后，法国在意大利，比利时，德国和荷兰的信号线消失了，但新的信号线继续建设，直到 1846 年。该网络发展到 556 个信号站，覆盖约 5000 公里（3000 英里）的线路，其中大部分在法国。在阿尔及利亚和摩洛哥的法国殖民地也建设了小型信号线。

1846 年，法国政府决定用电报取代可视信号系统。自 1837 年以来，英格兰一直在使用电报。然而，这并不是法国最后一次使用可视信号系统。在克里米亚战争（1853-56）期间，专门设计的可移动查普信号站可以在 20 分钟内建成，比长途电报线更快。据报道，查普信号系统传递的最后一个消息是 1855 年塞瓦斯托波尔的陷落。

可视信号的运行成本很高，仅限于政府使用（1837 年通过的一项法国法案禁止了私人网络），并无法在夜间运行或在恶劣天气（雾，雨，雪）下操作，且容易受到操作员错误行为的影响。1836 年，一些操作员被发现在信息中加入了特定的错误代码，以将有关股票市场的信息传递给波尔多。尽管如此，查普信号系统是当时通信领域的一场革命，并通过证明简单的标志可以用来在长距离上快速发送复杂的信息，为未来的发展铺平了道路。