R语言程序设计week2

最新推荐文章于 2023-06-16 02:08:25 发布

林思

最新推荐文章于 2023-06-16 02:08:25 发布

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分类专栏： R语言程序设计 datascience

本文链接：https://blog.csdn.net/u014596936/article/details/37596325

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2.1控制结构

如下图

如if

if(x>3){ 这种写法较常见，有特色的则是这种 y<- if(x>-3) {

y<-10 10

}else{ }else{

y<-0 0

} }

seq_along(x) 输入是一个向量，输出为一个同等长度的向量。在第三个例子中letter其实是一个索引，用letter,h,a ,b ,如果喜欢的话shit也行，这说明索引可以不只用数值

下面是一个内嵌式的for 循环

那个coin相当于抛硬币，是1的话z就加1,否则减1，直到z不满足while中的条件为止

好吧，这一个在很多结果优化中有用到，repeat在使用的时候最后加个循环次数的限制之类的。

所以return要注意，它等于中断循环外加返回值

2.2函数

这里主要讲了就一个参数匹配的问题

在这个图中如果 f <-function(a,b){b^2}，那么结果则是Error in f(2) : argument "b" is missing, with no default，其实本质是还是位置匹配啊

有意思的是lazy evaluation的问题

那么。。。的用途还有一种如

输入args(paste)

结果是 function (..., sep = " ", collapse = NULL)

....当参数传给函数的时候而未知的时候，也要用....，如此处的paste的第一个参数是未知的

2.3 scoping rules

如上图base一般会在表的最后，而最前则是environ。search()其实就是搜索的列表罢了

dynamic scoping 动态作用域 scoping rule作用域规则 lexical scoping词法作用域 static scoping静态作用域

在上图中可瞄到，x,y 是形参。而z又非局部变量。

Lexical vs. Dynamic Scoping

When a function is defined in the global environment and is subsequently called from the global environment, then the defining environment and the calling environment are the same. This can sometimes give the appearance of dynamic scoping.

> g <- function(x) { 
+ a <- 3
+ x+a+y 
+ }
> g(2)
Error in g(2) : object "y" not found
> y <- 3
> g(2)
[1] 8

Application: Optimization

Why is any of this information useful?

Optimization routines in R like optim, nlm, and optimize require you to pass a function whose argument is a vector of parameters (e.g. a log-likelihood)
However, an object function might depend on a host of other things besides its parameters (like data)
When writing software which does optimization, it may be desirable to allow the user to hold certain parameters fixed

Maximizing a Normal Likelihood

Write a “constructor” function

make.NegLogLik <- function(data, fixed=c(FALSE,FALSE)) {
        params <- fixed
        function(p) {
                params[!fixed] <- p
                mu <- params[1]
                sigma <- params[2]
                a <- -0.5*length(data)*log(2*pi*sigma^2)
                b <- -0.5*sum((data-mu)^2) / (sigma^2)
                -(a + b)
        } 
}

Note: Optimization functions in R minimize functions, so you need to use the negative log-likelihood.

Maximizing a Normal Likelihood

> set.seed(1); normals <- rnorm(100, 1, 2)
> nLL <- make.NegLogLik(normals)
> nLL
function(p) {
                params[!fixed] <- p
                mu <- params[1]
                sigma <- params[2]
                a <- -0.5*length(data)*log(2*pi*sigma^2)
                b <- -0.5*sum((data-mu)^2) / (sigma^2)
                -(a + b)
        }
<environment: 0x165b1a4>
> ls(environment(nLL))
[1] "data"   "fixed"  "params"

Estimating Parameters

> optim(c(mu = 0, sigma = 1), nLL)$par
      mu    sigma
1.218239 1.787343

Fixing σ = 2

> nLL <- make.NegLogLik(normals, c(FALSE, 2))
> optimize(nLL, c(-1, 3))$minimum
[1] 1.217775

Fixing μ = 1

> nLL <- make.NegLogLik(normals, c(1, FALSE))
> optimize(nLL, c(1e-6, 10))$minimum
[1] 1.800596

Plotting the Likelihood

nLL <- make.NegLogLik(normals, c(1, FALSE))
x <- seq(1.7, 1.9, len = 100)
y <- sapply(x, nLL)
plot(x, exp(-(y - min(y))), type = "l")

nLL <- make.NegLogLik(normals, c(FALSE, 2))
x <- seq(0.5, 1.5, len = 100)
y <- sapply(x, nLL)
plot(x, exp(-(y - min(y))), type = "l")

Lexical Scoping Summary

Objective functions can be “built” which contain all of the necessary data for evaluating the function
No need to carry around long argument lists — useful for interactive and exploratory work.
Code can be simplified and cleand up
Reference: Robert Gentleman and Ross Ihaka (2000). “Lexical Scope and Statistical Computing,” JCGS, 9, 491–508.

好吧，接下来是R的向量化运算的一些小点

如x<-c(1.3.5)

x==3 其实如同c(1,3,5)==c(3,3,3)

另一矩阵运算的话，如x<-matrix(1:4,2,2) y<-matrix(rep(10,4),2,2)

x*y就是矩阵内每个元素的乘积，x%*%y才是真正的矩阵运算。

2.4时间与日期

R有时间与日期的特殊的呈现方式

dates by Date class

Times by POSIXct or POSIXlt class

dates are stored internally(内在的）as the number of days since 1970-01-01

times are stored internally as the number of seconds since 1970-01-01

在使用的时候可用as.Date将字符转为日期

如：x
[1] "1970-01-01"
> class(x)
[1] "Date"
> unclass(x)
[1] 0
> unclass(as.Date("1970-01-01"))
[1] 0
> unclass(as.Date("1970-01-03"))
[1] 2

unclass之后就是天数了哟，哈哈

另一个关于unclass的例子

> class(m)
[1] "data.frame"
> unclass(m)
$myFamilyAges
[1] 43 42 12 8 5

$myFamilyGenders
[1] Male Female Female Male Female
Levels: Female Male

attr(,"row.names")
[1] 1 2 3 4 5