形式语言与自动机_笔记整理(四)_可判定性与可计算性

Decidability

The diagonalization method

Undecidability

fig2

Countable and Uncountable Sets

• The natural numbers $N = \{1, 2, 3, …\}$ are countable.

• Definition: a set $S$ is countable if it is finite, or it is infinite and there is a bijection f: N→S

• The positive rational numbers $Q = \{m$ / $n$ | $m, n \in N\}$ are countable.

• Theorem: The real numbers $R$ are uncountable. (Cantor diagonalization)

Non-RE Languages

Theorem: there exist languages that are not Recursively Enumerable.
Proof outline:

• the set of all TMs is countable
• the set of all languages is uncountable
• the function $L$: {TM’s} → {languages}$ cannot be onto

Proof:

The halting problem is undecidable

The Halting Problem

• Definition:
  HALT = $\{<M, x>$ | TM $M$ halts on input $x\}$

• Theorem: HALT is not decidable (undecidable).

  • Proof:、
  • Suppose TM $H$ decides HALT
    
    • if $M$ halts on $x$, $H$ accept
    • if $M$ does not halt on $x$, $H$ reject
  • Define new TM $H'$: on input <M> <script type="math/tex" id="MathJax-Element-19"> </script>
    
    • if $H$ accepts $<M, <M>>$, then loop
    • if $H$ rejects $<M, <M>>$, then halt
  • Consider $H'$ on input <H′> <script type="math/tex" id="MathJax-Element-25"> </script>:
    
    • if it halts, then $H$ rejects $<H', <H'>>$, which implies it cannot halt
    • if it loops, then $H$ accepts $<H', <H'>>$, which implies it must halt
  • Contradiction. Thus neither $H$ nor $H'$ can exist

RE and co-RE

The complement of a RE language is called a co-RE language.
Theorem: a language L is decidable if and only if L is RE and L is co-RE.
Proof:
$(\Rightarrow)$ we already know decidable implies RE

• If L is decidable, then complement of L is decidable by flipping accept/reject.
• So L is in co-RE.

$(\Leftarrow)$ we have TM $M$ that recognizes $L$, and TM $M'$ recognizes complement of $L$.

• On input x, simulate $M$, $M'$ in parallel.
  • If $M$ accepts, accept; if $M'$ accepts, reject.

  • A natural non-RE Language

    • Theorem: the complement of HALT is not recursively enumerable.

    • Proof:
      we know that $HALT$ is RE
      suppose complement of $HALT$ is RE
      then $HALT$ is co-RE
      implies $HALT$ is decidable.
      Contradiction.

    

    Complexity

    Analyze Algorithms
    Worst-Case Analysis

    Time Complexity

    Measure Time Complexity

    Asymptotic Notation

    Asymptotic Notation Facts
    - logarithmic: O(log n)
    - $log_bn = (log_2n)/(log_2b)$
    - so $log_bn$ = O(log2n