[06 - 05] tpo2p1 - tpo3c1 - lecture_this information is enough to find three of these -CSDN博客

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[ TOP14 - P2 ] Maya Water Problems

Although southern Maya areas received more rainfall than northern areas, problems of water were paradoxically more severe in the wet south. While that made things hard for ancient Maya living in the south, it has also made things hard for modern archaeologists who have difficulty understanding why ancient droughts caused bigger problems in the wet south than in the dry north. The likely explanation is that an area of underground freshwater underlies the Yucatan Peninsula, but surface elevation increases from north to south, so that as one moves south the land surface lies increasingly higher above the water table. In the northern peninsula the elevation is sufficiently low that the ancient Maya were able to reach the water table at deep sinkholes called cenotes, or at deep caves. In low-elevation north coastal areas without sinkholes, the Maya would have been able to get down to the water table by digging wells up to 75 feet (22 meters) deep. But much of the south lies too high above the water table for cenotes or wells to reach down to it. Making matters worse, most of the Yucatan Peninsula consists of karst, a porous sponge-like limestone terrain where rain runs straight into the ground and where little or no surface water remains available.

interfered v. 干涉;干预;介入 interfere的过去分词和过去式

caused v. 导致;造成;引起;使发生 adj. 由……引起的 cause的过去分词和过去式

According to paragraph 3, why was the southern Mayan homeland hard to farm?

A. The presence of numerous sinkholes and wells interfered with farming.

B. Southern soil lacked the depth crops needed for growth.

C. Underground water was too far below the surface to reach.

D. The presence of karst caused frequent flooding.

the Yucatan Peninsula consists of karst, a porous sponge-like limestone terrain where rain runs straight into the ground and where little or no surface water remains available.

How did those dense southern Maya populations deal with the resulting water problem? It initially surprises us that many of their cities were not built next to the rivers but instead on high terrain in rolling uplands. The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season. For example, reservoirs at the Maya city of Tikal held enough water to meet the drinking water needs of about 10,000 people for a period of 18 months. At the city of Coba the Maya built dikes around a lake in order to raise its level and make their water supply more reliable. But the inhabitants of Tikal and other cities dependent on reservoirs for drinking water would still have been in deep trouble if 18 months passed without rain in a prolonged drought. A shorter drought in which they exhausted their stored food supplies might already have gotten them in deep trouble, because growing crops required rain rather than reservoirs.

plugged v. 堵塞;封堵;供给;补充;宣传;推广;补足

plastering v. 抹灰;用…涂抹;使头发粘在(头上);用灰泥抹(墙等);

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

A. Southern Maya populations obtained the water they needed for the dry season by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions.

B. The Maya are credited with creating methods for modifying natural rainwater and storing it.

C. Leaks in the karst caused difficulties in the creation of reservoirs, which were needed to store water for the dry season.

D. Southern Mayans were more successful at collecting rain than storing it during dry seasons.

irrigation n. 灌溉;水利;[医]冲洗

cropland n. 耕地;农田，耕地

What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about how residents of Tikal met their needs for water and food during most periods of drought?

A. They depended upon water and food that had been stored for use during the dry season.

B. They obtained drinking water and water for crop irrigation from Coba dikes.

C. They located their population centers near a lake where water was available for drinking and watering crops.

D. They moved locations every 18 months to find new croplands and water sources.

To understand the ancient Mayan people who lived in the area that is today southern Mexico and Central America and the ecological difficulties they faced, one must first consider their environment, which we think of as "jungle" or "tropical rainforest." [ ] This view is inaccurate, and the reason proves to be important. [ ] Properly speaking, tropical rainforests grow in high-rainfall equatorial areas that remain wet or humid all year round. But the Maya homeland lies more than sixteen hundred kilometers from the equator, at latitudes 17 to 22 degrees north, in a habitat termed a "seasonal tropical forest." [ ] That is, while there does tend to be a rainy season from May to October, there is also a dry season from January through April. If one focuses on the wet months, one calls the Maya homeland a "seasonal tropical forest"; if one focuses on the dry months, one could instead describe it as a "seasonal desert." [ ]

prove v. 证明，证实;证明是，被发现是，显示

properly adv. 适当地;正确地;恰当地;实际上;真正地;得体地;

equatorial adj. 赤道的;赤道附近的;赤道地区特有的

Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

The difference between the two climates challenged the Maya who had to deal with both.

Directions: Select from the seven phrases below the phrases that correctly characterize the southern Mayan homeland and the phrases that correctly characterize the northern Mayan homeland. Drag each phrase you select into the appropriate column of the table. Two of the phrases will NOT be used. This question is worth 3 points.

Answer Chiose:

A. City of Tikal

B. Predictable rainfall

C. High above water table

D. Used reservoirs

E. Obtained water from wells

F. Dramatically improved corn crops

G. Had comparatively thin layer of soil

Southern Mayan homeland

ACD

Northern Mayan homeland

[ TOP14 - P3 ] Children and Advertising

Young children are trusting of commercial advertisements in the media, and advertisers have sometimes been accused of taking advantage of this trusting outlook. The Independent Television Commission, regulator of television advertising in the United Kingdom, has criticized advertisers for "misleadingness"-creating a wrong impression either intentionally or unintentionally-in an effort to control advertisers' use of techniques that make it difficult for children to judge the true size, action, performance, or construction of a toy.

commercial adj. 商业的;商业化的;贸易的;赢利的;

accused v. 控告;谴责;控诉 accuse的过去分词和过去式

Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as being a difficult judgment for children to make about advertised toys?

A. How big the toys are

B. How much the toys cost

C. What the toys can do

D. How the toys are made

General concern about misleading tactics that advertisers employ is centered on the use of exaggeration. Consumer protection groups and parents believe that children are largely ill-equipped to recognize such techniques and that often exaggeration is used at the expense of product information. Claims such as "the best" or "better than" can be subjective and misleading; even adults may be unsure as to their meaning. They represent the advertiser's opinions about the qualities of their products or brand and, as a consequence, are difficult to verify. Advertisers sometimes offset or counterbalance an exaggerated claim with a disclaimer-a qualification or condition on the claim. For example, the claim that breakfast cereal has a health benefit may be accompanied by the disclaimer "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast." However, research has shown that children often have difficulty understanding disclaimers: children may interpret the phrase "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast" to mean that the cereal is required as a necessary part of a balanced breakfast. The author George Comstock suggested that less than a quarter of children between the ages of six and eight years old understood standard disclaimers used in many toy advertisements and that disclaimers are more readily comprehended when presented in both audio and visual formats.Nevertheless, disclaimers are mainly presented in audio format only.

interpret v. 解释;口译;诠释;说明;把…理解为;演绎;领会

tactic n. 战术;策略;手段;兵法;招数

centered v. 集中，把……聚集在 center的过去分词和过去式

at the expense of 以...为代价，以牺牲...的利益为代价

readily adv. 轻而易举地;乐意地;欣然地;便利地;快捷地

comprehended v. 理解;领悟;懂 comprehend的过去分词和过去式

In paragraph 2, what is one reason that claims such as "the best" or "better than" can be misleading?

A. They represent the opinions of adults, which are often different from those of children.

B. They generally involve comparisons among only a small group of products.

C. They reflect the attitudes of consumer protection groups rather than those of actual consumers.

D. They reflect the advertiser's viewpoint about the product.

Cereal advertisements that include the statement "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast" are trying to suggest that

A. the cereal is a desirable part of a healthful, balanced breakfast

B. the cereal contains equal amounts of all nutrients

C. cereal is a healthier breakfast than other foods are

D. the cereal is the most nutritious part of the breakfast meal

According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of disclaimers made in advertisements EXCEPT:

A. They are qualifications or conditions put on a claim.

B. They may be used to balance exaggerations.

C. They are usually presented in both audio and visual formats.

D. They are often difficult for children to understand.

[ TOP8 - S2 ]`

NARRATOR
Listen to part of a lecture in an animal behavior class.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
OK, well, last time we talked about passive habitat selection. Like plants, for example—they don't make active choices about where to grow— they’re dispersed by some other agent, like the wind.
And if the seeds land in a suitable habitat, they do well and reproduce.
With active habitat selection, an organism is able to physically select where to live and breed.
And because an animal's breeding habitat is so important, we'd expect animal species to have developed preferences for particular types of habitats, places where their offspring have the best chance of survival.
So let's look at the effect these preferences can have by looking at some examples, but first let's recap.
What do we mean by habitat? Frank?
MALE STUDENT
Well, it's basically the place or environment where an organism normally lives and grows.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Right. And as we’ve discussed, there’re some key elements that a habitat must contain: food, obviously. Water; and it’s got to have the right climate; and spaces for physical protection.
And we saw how important habitat selection is when we looked at habitats where some of these factors are removed, perhaps through habitat destruction.
Um, I just read about a shorebird, the plover.
The plover lives by the ocean and feeds on small shellfish, insects and plants.
It blends in with the sand, so it's well-camouflaged from predator birds above.
But it lays its eggs in shallow depressions in the sand with very little protection around them.
So if there are people or dogs on the beach, the eggs and fledglings in the nests are really vulnerable.
Out in California where there has been a lot of human development by the ocean, the plovers are now a threatened species.
So conservationists tried to create a new habitat for them.
They made artificial beaches and sand bars in areas inaccessible to people and dogs.
And the plover population is up quite a bit in those places.
Ok. That is an instance where a habitat is made less suitable.
But now what about cases where an animal exhibits a clear choice between two suitable habitats—in cases like that, does the preference matter?
Well, Let's look at the blue warbler.
The Blue warbler is a songbird that lives in North America.
They clearly prefer hard wood forests with dense shrubs—ah, bushes—underneath the trees.
They actually nest in the shrubs, not the trees so they're pretty close to the ground, but these warblers also nest in the forests that have low shrub density.
It is usually the younger warblers that nest in these areas because the preferred spots where there are a lot of shrubs are taken by the older more dominant birds.
And the choice of habitat seems to affect the reproductive success.
Because the older and more experienced birds who nest in the high density shrub areas have significantly more offspring than those in low density areas, which suggests that the choice of where to nest does have an impact on the number of chicks they have.
But a preferred environment doesn't always seem to correlate with greater reproductive success.
For example, in Europe, studies have been done of blackcap warblers—we just call them blackcaps.
The Blackcap can be found in two different environments.
Ah, their preferred habitat is forests near the edges of streams.
However, blackcaps also live in pine woods away from water.
Studies have been done on the reproductive success rates for the birds in both areas, and the result showed—surprisingly—that the reproductive success was essentially the same in both areas—the preferred and the second choice habitat.
Well. Why?
It turned out that there were actually four times as many bird pairs or couples living in the stream edge habitat compared to the area away from the stream.
So this stream edge area had a much denser population which meant more members of the same species competing for resources, wanting to feed on the same things or build their nests in the same places, which lower the suitability of the prime habitat even though it's their preferred habitat.
So the results of the study suggest that when the number of the competitors in the prime habitat reaches a certain point, the second rank habitat becomes just as successful as the prime habitat, just because there are fewer members of the same species living there.
So it looks like competition for resources is another important factor in determining if a particular habitat is suitable.

dispersed v. (使)分散，散开;散布;驱散;传播;疏散;散发 disperse的过去分词和过去式

agent n. (演员、音乐家、运动员、作家等的)代理人;（化学）剂;

physically adv. 身体上;肉体上;根本上;按自然法则;依据自然规律

breed v. 繁殖;培育(动植物);孕育;导致;交配繁殖;以…方式教育

expect v. 预期;预计;期待;要求;指望;预料;等待;盼望;猜想

recap v. 扼要重述;概括;简要回顾

plover n. 鸻;千鸟

fledgling n. (刚会飞的)幼鸟;初出茅庐的人;无经验的组织;新体系

threatened adj. 受到威胁的;感到危险的 threaten的过去分词和过去式

exhibit v. 展览;表现，显示，显出(感情、品质或能力);展出

spot n. 斑点;（人体的）部位, 地方;地点, 场所;地点;

impact n. 影响;撞击;冲击力;冲撞;强大作用

chick n. 小鸡;雏鸟;少女;少妇;小妞儿

correlate v.（使）相关;相互依赖;极为相似;相互关联影响;

meant v. 意思是;打算;本意是;意欲;表示…的意思;有…的目的 mean的过去分词和过去式

feed on 使）以……为食；以……为能源;从……中得到增强（满足）

What is the main purpose of the lecture?

A. To compare active habitat selection with passive habitat selection

B. To show that most habitat preferences in animals are learned

C. To compare the habitat requirements of several bird species

D. To examine the consequences of habitat selection by animals

What element of the plover's habitat in California was threatened?

A. The availability of food

B. The availability of water

C. The safety of nests from human activity

D. The protection of nests from predatory birds

What does the professor illustrate with the example of the blue warbler?

A. The relationship between human activity and habitat loss

B. The relationship between habitat and reproductive success

C. The advantages of habitats with low vegetation density

D. The reproductive advantage that young warblers have over older warblers

Why does the professor mention the population density of blackcaps in two different habitats?

A. To explain the similar reproductive rates in the two habitats

B. To explain the relation between a species’ population density and its nesting behavior

C. To illustrate the advantages of a preferred habitat over a secondary habitat

D. To illustrate the possible impact of making a poor habitat selection

According to the professor, why did some blackcaps choose a secondary habitat?

A. They were following a moving food supply

B. Their preferred habitat was taken over by another bird species

C. Their nesting sites were disturbed by human activity

D. Their preferred habitat became too competitive

What can be inferred about the professor when she says this:

A. She realizes that she just contradicted a statement she made earlier

B. She is about to discuss another aspect of the topic

C. She thinks the answer to her question is obvious

D. She wants students to recall a case that she has already discussed.

Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.

involving v. 需要;影响;(使)参加，加入;包含;牵涉;牵连; involve的现在分词

tell v. 告诉;说;知道;讲述;告知;提供(情况);说明;显示;表达;命令;识别;

content n.（网站或只读光盘上的）内容，目录;内容;含量;

Canadian adj. 加拿大的

nearly adv. 几乎;将近;差不多

commercial n. (电台或电视播放的)广告

rational adj. 合理的;理性的;理智的;明智的;清醒的

appeal n. 上诉;(尤指慈善机构或警方的)呼吁，吁请，恳求;吸引力;申诉;魅力;

psychological adj. 心理的;心理学的;心灵的;精神上的;关于心理学的

immaturity n. 不成熟;幼稚

nature n. 自然;大自然;自然界;本性;天性;种类;性格;基本特征;自然方式;

effectiveness n. 有效性;效率

Paragraph 3 indicates that there is uncertainty about which of the following issues involving children and fantasy in advertising?

A. Whether children can tell if what they are seeing in an advertisement is real or fantasy

B. Whether children can differentiate fantasy techniques from other techniques used in advertising

C. Whether children realize how commonly fantasy techniques are used in advertising aimed at them

D. Whether children are attracted to advertisements that lack fantasy

A. Rational appeals in advertising are certainly limited by children's emotional immaturity and the indirect nature of their associations.

B. Indirect appeals to children's psychological states or associations can limit the effectiveness of rational appeals in advertising.

C. Rational appeals play a much smaller role in advertisements for children than emotional appeals and psychological associations do.

D. Rational appeals in advertising aimed at children should certainly be limited until the children are emotionally and psychologically ready.

The use of celebrities such as singers and movie stars is common in advertising. The intention is for the positively perceived attributes of the celebrity to be transferred to the advertised product and for the two to become automatically linked in the audience's mind. In children's advertising, the "celebrities" are often animated figures from popular cartoons. In the recent past, the role of celebrities in advertising to children has often been conflated with the concept of host selling. Host selling involves blending advertisements with regular programming in a way that makes it difficult to distinguish one from the other. Host selling occurs, for example, when a children's show about a cartoon lion contains an ad in which the same lion promotes a breakfast cereal. The psychologist Dale Kunkel showed that the practice of host selling reduced children's ability to distinguish between advertising and program material. It was also found that older children responded more positively to products in host selling advertisements.

show n. 表现;(电视或广播)节目;动作，行为，样子;演出;展览;

in which 在其中

featuring v. 以…为特色;由…主演;占重要地位;起重要作用;

feature n. 特征;特点;特色;

celebrities n. 名人;著名;名流;名誉;名望 celebrity的复数

intention n. 意图;打算;目的;计划

positively adv. 积极地;明确地;肯定地;乐观地;绝对地;赞成地;带（或产生）正电地

perceived v. 认为;察觉到;意识到;注意到;将…视为;

attribute n. 属性;特征;性质;定语

transferred v. 转移(感情);(使)转移，搬迁;让与，转让(权力等); transfer的过去分词和过去式

figure n.（书中的）图，表;人物;人，动物;图形;身材;位数;花样;

conflated v. 合并;混合;合成 conflate的过去式

conflate vt. 合并;混合;合成

host n. 主机，服务机;寄主，宿主;主人;许多;东道主;(电视或广播的)节目主持人

regular dj. 定时的，定期的;经常的;恒常的，常规的，循常例的;

promote vt. 促进;推动;提升;促销;晋升;推销;将

material n. (某一活动所需的)材料;原料;素材;布料;节目

In paragraph 4, why does the author mention a show about a cartoon lion in which an advertisement appears featuring the same lion character?

A. To help explain what is meant by the term "host selling” and why it can be misleading to children

B. To explain why the role of celebrities in advertising aimed at children has often been confused with host selling

C. To compare the effectiveness of using animated figures with the effectiveness of using celebrities in advertisements aimed at children

D. To indicate how Kunkel first became interested in studying the effects of host selling on children

Regarding the appearance of celebrities in advertisements that do not involve host selling, the evidence is mixed. Researcher Charles Atkin found that children believe that the characters used to advertise breakfast cereals are knowledgeable about cereals, and children accept such characters as credible sources of nutritional information. This finding was even more marked for heavy viewers of television.In addition, children feel validated in their choice of a product when a celebrity endorses that product. A study of children in Hong Kong, however, found that the presence of celebrities in advertisements could negatively affect the children's perceptions of a product if the children did not like the celebrity in question.

According to paragraph 5, what did a study of children in Hong Kong show about the use of celebrities in advertisements aimed at children?

A. It is most effective with children who watch a lot of television.

B. It has little effect if the celebrities are not familiar to most children.

C. It is more effective in marketing cereals and food products than in marketing other kinds of products.

D. It can have a negative effect if the celebrities are not popular with children.

[ ] Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. [ ] Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. [ ] In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. [ ] Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations.

Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Another aspect of advertising that may especially influence children is fantasy.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Answer Chiose:

A. Children may not be able to interpret exaggerated claims made by advertisers or understand the disclaimers used to offset claims.

B. Although the use of celebrities is not necessarily effective in advertisements aimed at children, there is evidence that host selling can positively affect their views of a product.

C. Studies show that misleading tactics are used most often in commercials for breakfast cereals, with toy commercials using such tactics only slightly less frequently.

D. The use of fantasy is especially common in advertisements for children, but children may not be able to distinguish fantasy from reality.

E. Very young children are particularly influenced by host selling, while slightly older children are more readily misled by seemingly rational claims such as "the best."

F. Advertisements can be misleading to children when the advertisements use audio and visual formats that are especially appealing to children.

Advertisers sometimes use strategies that can mislead children.

[ TOP15 - P2 ] Mass Extinctions

Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologically short interval of time are called mass extinctions. There was one such event at the end of the Cretaceous period around 70 million years ago. There was another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permian period around 250 million years ago. The Permian event has attracted much less attention than other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time.

Cretaceous 白垩纪;白垩纪的;白垩系;白垩

geologically 地质学的;从地质学角度;从地质上来说

Permian 二叠纪;二叠系;和二叠纪;二迭纪

Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about mass extinctions?

A. They take place over a period of 70 million years.

B. They began during the Cretaceous period.

C. They eliminate many animal species that exist at the time they occur.

D. They occur every 250 million years.

The fossil record shows at least five mass extinctions in which many families of marine organisms died out. The rates of extinction happening today are as great as the rates during these mass extinctions. Many scientists have therefore concluded that a sixth great mass extinction is currently in progress.

According to paragraph 2, scientists base their belief that a mass extinction is going on at present on which of the following?

A. The speed with which mass extinctions are happening today is similar to the speed of past extinctions.

B. The number of species that have died out since the last extinction event is extremely large.

C. Mass extinctions occur with regularity and it is time for another one.

D. Fossil records of many marine species have disappeared.

What could cause such high rates of extinction? There are several hypotheses, including warming or cooling of Earth, changes in seasonal fluctuations or ocean currents, and changing positions of the continents. Biological hypotheses include ecological changes brought about by the evolution of cooperation between insects and flowering plants or of bottom-feeding predators in the oceans. Some of the proposed mechanisms required a very brief period during which all extinctions suddenly took place; other mechanisms would be more likely to have taken place more gradually, over an extended period, or at different times on different continents. Some hypotheses fail to account for simultaneous extinctions on land and in the seas. Each mass extinction may have had a different cause. Evidence points to hunting by humans and habitat destruction as the likely causes for the current mass extinction.

brought v. 带来;提供;引起;导致;供给;取来;带…到某处 bring的过去分词和过去式

extended v. 扩展;延长;扩大;使延期;使伸长;扩大…的范围 extend的过去分词和过去式

simultaneous adj. 同时的;同步的;同时发生(或进行)的

each adv. 每个

feeding n. 饲养;喂食;施肥 adj. 喂食的；【机】进给的 feed的现在分词

tend to v. 倾向于;有助于

According to paragraph 3, each of the following has been proposed as a possible cause of mass extinctions EXCEPT

A. habitat destruction

B. continental movement

C. fierce interspecies competition

D. changes in Earth’s temperature

Paragraph 3 supports which of the following ideas about mass extinctions?

A. Scientists know the exact causes of most mass extinctions.

B. Mass extinctions are unlikely to happen again in the future.

C. Insects, flowering plants, and bottom-feeding predators in the oceans tend to be the first organisms to disappear during episodes of mass extinctions.

D. Some mass extinctions occurred on land and in the seas at the same time.

American paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski, who have studied extinction rates in a number of fossil groups, suggest that episodes of increased extinction have recurred periodically, approximately every 26 million years since the mid-Cretaceous period. The late Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs and ammonoids was just one of the more drastic in a whole series of such recurrent extinction episodes. The possibility that mass extinctions may recur periodically has given rise to such hypotheses as that of a companion star with a long-period orbit deflecting other bodies from their normal orbits, making some of them fall to Earth as meteors and causing widespread devastation upon impact.

continued v. 持续;走，移动;延伸;继续存在;不断发生; continue的过去分词和过去式

clarify vt. 澄清;阐明;(尤指通过加热使黄油)纯净，净化;使更清晰易懂

deflecting v. (尤指击中某物后)偏斜，转向，使偏斜，使转向;转移; deflect的现在分词

bodies n. 天体;身体;尸体;躯体;躯干;死尸 body的第三人称单数和复数

normal adj. 正常的;一般的;典型的;精神正常的;意识健全的

A. Based on their studies of extinction rates of numerous fossil groups, paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski have determined that mass extinctions occur about every 26 million years.

B. David Raup and John Sepkoski studied extinction rates of numerous fossil groups and suggest that mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period continued for 26 million years.

C. Studies that paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski conducted of various fossil groups have revealed that extinction rates have increased over the past 26 million years.

D. The studies conducted by paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski of the fossil remains of species suggest that the extinction rate of species started to increase by the middle of the Cretaceous period.

According to paragraph 4, what aspect of extinction episodes does the companion-star hypothesis supposedly clarify?

A. Their location

B. Their frequency

C. Their duration

D. Their severity

One interesting test of the Alvarez hypothesis is based on the presence of the rare-earth element iridium Ir. Earth's crust contains very little of this element, but most asteroids contain a lot more. Debris thrown into the atmosphere by an asteroid collision would presumably contain large amounts of iridium, and atmospheric currents would carry this material all over the globe. A search of sedimentary deposits that span the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods shows that there is a dramatic increase in the abundance of iridium briefly and precisely at this boundary. This iridium anomaly offers strong support for the Alvarez hypothesis even though no asteroid itself has ever been recovered.

iridium n. 铱

rare-earth 稀土;稀土类;稀土族元素

asteroid n. 小行星 adj. 星状的

boundary n. 边界;界限;分界线;使球越过边界线的击球(得加分)

briefly adv. 简要地;简短地;短暂地;暂时地

According to paragraph 6, what made iridium a useful test of the Alvarez hypothesis?

A. Its occurrence in a few locations on Earth against several locations on other planets

B. Its occurrence in limited quantities on Earth against its abundance in asteroids

C. Its ability to remain solid at extremely high temperatures

D. Its ease of detection even in very small amounts

In stating that “no asteroid itself has ever been recovered”, the author emphasizes which of the following?

A. The importance of the indirect evidence for a large asteroid

B. The fact that no evidence supports the asteroid-impact hypothesis

C. The reason many researchers reject the Alvarez hypothesis

D. The responsibility of scientists for not making the effort to discover the asteroid itself

An asteroid of this size would be expected to leave an immense crater, even if the asteroid itself was disintegrated by the impact. The intense heat of the impact would produce heat-shocked quartz in many types of rock. Also, large blocks thrown aside by the impact would form secondary craters surrounding the main crater. To date, several such secondary craters have been found along Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula, and heat-shocked quartz has been found both in Mexico and in Haiti. A location called Chicxulub, along the Yucatán coast, has been suggested as the primary impact site.

leave v. 离开(某人或某处);使保留，让…处于;使发生;剩余;（去世时）遗赠，遗留;

impact v. 冲击;撞击;(对某事物)有影响

shocked adj. 震惊的;难堪的;受到机械冲击的

block n. 块;阻挡;街区;(公寓、办公、教学、医院等)大楼;（东西的）

thrown v. 扔;抛;丢;投;掷;摔;猛推;使劲撞 throw的过去分词

aside adv. 在一边;留;在旁边;存;到旁边;

to date 迄今;到目前为止

propose v. 建议;提议;提供（解释）;计划;打算;求婚;提名;希冀

decisive adj. 决定性的;关键的;果断的;坚决的;决断的

What is the purpose of paragraph 7 in the passage?

A. It proposes a decisive new test of the Alvarez hypothesis.

B. It presents additional supporting evidence for the Alvarez hypothesis.

C. It explains why evidence relating to the Alvarez hypothesis is hard to find.

D. It shows how recent evidence has raised doubts about the Alvarez hypothesis.

[ ] Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologically short interval of time are called mass extinctions. [ ] There was one such event at the end of the Cretaceous period around 70 million years ago. [ ] There was another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permian period around 250 million years ago. [ ] The Permian event has attracted much less attention than other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time.

volcanic adj. 火山的;猛烈的;火山构成的，火山产生的;

Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

In general, it is believed that these two extinctions resulted from drastic environmental changes that followed meteorite impacts or massive volcanic eruptions.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
This question is worth 2 points.

Answer Chiose:

A. Asteroid impacts, evolutionary developments, and changes in Earth’s climate and in the positions of the continents have all been proposed as possible causes of mass extinctions.

B. There was a particularly large mass extinction that occurred around 250 million years ago at the end of the Permian period, whose cause could not be determined.

C. Researchers have observed 26-million-year cycles in extinction rates of a number of fossil groups that could all be attributed to the same cause.

D. The unusual distribution of iridium on Earth and the presence of craters and heat-shocked quartz are central to the theory that an asteroid impact caused the late Cretaceous event.

E. According to the Alvarez hypothesis, much of the iridium originally present on Earth was thrown into the atmosphere as a result of an asteroid impact that also caused a mass extinction.

F. The collision between Earth and a large asteroid resulted in massive damage and generated enough heat to cause irreversible changes in Earth’s atmosphere.

There have been many attempts to explain the causes of mass extinctions.

[ TOP8 - C2 ]

NARRATOR
Listen to a conversation between a student and a business professor.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
So, Richard … what’s up?
MALE STUDENT
Well, I know we have a test coming up on chapters . . . [trying to remember] uh . . .
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Chapter 3 and 4 from your text book.
MALE STUDENT
Right, 3 and 4, well, I didn't get something you said on class Monday.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Alright? Do you remember what it was about?
MALE STUDENT
Yes, you were talking about a gym... a health club, where people can go to exercise [upspeak]… that kind of thing.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
OK, but the health club model is actually from chapter 5... so...
MALE STUDENT
[Relieved] Oh, chapter 5? Oh so it's not... OK but I guess I still want to try to understand...
FEMALE PROFESSOR
[interrupting] Of course, I was talking about an issue in strategic marketing. [searching, hesitates] Um, the health-club model, um…
I mean with a health club you might think they would have trouble attracting customers, right?
MALE STUDENT
Well, I know when I pass by a healthy club and I see others people working out, the exercising, I just soon walk on by.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Yeah, there’s that, plus... lots of people have exercise equipment at home, or they can play sports with their friends, right?
MALE STUDENT
Sure.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
But nowadays in spite of all that, and expensive membership fees, health club are hugely popular, so how come?
MALE STUDENT
I guess that is what I didn't understand.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
OK, basically they have to offer things that most people can't find anywhere else, you know quality, that means better exercise equipment, high-end stuff. [pause, thoughtful] Um, and... classes... exercise classes, maybe aerobics...
MALE STUDENT
[confused] I’m not sure if I... [understands] oh, OK,I get it.. . Yeah. [pause] And you know, another thing is, I think people probably feel good about themselves when they’re at the gym.
And they can meet new people, socialize...
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Right, so health clubs offer high quality facilities, and also they sell an image about people having more fun, relating better to others and improving their own lives if they become members.
MALE STUDENT
Sure that makes sense.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Well, then, can you think of another business or organization that could benefit from doing this?
MALE STUDENT
Um.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Think about an important building on campus here, [hinting] something everyone uses, a major source of information?
MALE STUDENT
[doubtful]You mean like, an administrative building?
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Well, that is not what I had in my mind.
MALE STUDENT
[interrupting] Oh! You mean the library?
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Exactly. Libraries. Imagine public libraries. They’re an information resource for the whole community, right?
MALE STUDENT
Well, they can be, but... now, with the Internet, and big bookstores, you can probably get what you need without going to a library.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
That's true. So if you were the director of a public library, what would you do about that?
MALE STUDENT
To get more people to stop in?
[thinking] Well, like you said, better equipment, maybe a super fast internet connection.
And not just a good variety of books but also like nice and comfortable areas where people can read and do research. Things that make them want to come to the library and stay.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Great.
MALE STUDENT
Oh, and... maybe have authors come and do some readings? Or, I don’t know.. . special presentations. Something people couldn’t get at home.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
Now, you are getting it.
MALE STUDENT
Thanks, professor Wilkins. I think so too …

director n. 董事;(公司部门的)主任;导演;(某一活动的)负责人;经理;理事;(学院的)院长

emphasis n. 强调;(对某个词或短语的)强调，加重语气，重读;重视;重要性

What is the conversation mainly about?

A. Preparing for a test

B. A strategy for attracting customers

C. Business opportunities in the field of health

D. Differences between two business models

What does the professor imply about the upcoming test?

A. It will not contain questions about the health-club model

B. It will ask about ways to improve the customer’s self-image

C. It will require students to discuss marketing strategies for libraries

D. It will not require students to give examples of successful businesses

Based on the conversation, indicate whether each of the following is offered by health clubs.

Low membership fees

High-quality facilities

Exercise classes

Positive self-image

Special presentations

What does the professor imply about public libraries?

A. They tend to be more popular than health clubs

B. They cannot offer as many services as health clubs

C. They should not spend money on high-quality equipment

D. They need to give greater emphasis to strategic marketing

Why does the student say this:

A. To introduce a personal story about exercising

B. To point out a flaw in the health-club model

C. To give an example that supports the professor’s point

D. To explain why he disagrees with the professor

[ TOP16 - P2 ] Planets in Our Solar System

According to the passage, each of the following statements comparing terrestrial planets with Jovian planets is true EXCEPT:

A. Terrestrial planets are closer to the Sun than Jovian planets.

B. Terrestrial planets have smaller diameters than Jovian planets.

C. Terrestrial planets have smaller masses than Jovian planets.

D. Terrestrial planets travel in a different direction than Jovian planets do.

Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups-gases, rocks, and ices-based on their melting points. The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices.

Paragraph 4 mentions which of the following as a reason why terrestrial planets are dense?

A. They are made up of three groups of substances.

B. They are composed mainly of rocky and metallic materials.

C. They contain more ice than Jovian planets.

D. They contain relatively small amounts of water.

The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres consisting of varying amounts of hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia. By comparison, the terrestrial planets have meager atmospheres at best. A planet's ability to retain an atmosphere depends on its temperature and mass. Simply stated, a gas molecule can "evaporate" from a planet if it reaches a speed known as the escape velocity. For Earth, this velocity is 11 kilometers per second. Any material, including a rocket, must reach this speed before it can leave Earth and go into space. The Jovian planets, because of their greater masses and thus higher surface gravities, have higher escape velocities (21–60 kilometers per second) than the terrestrial planets. Consequently, it is more difficult for gases to "evaporate" from them. Also, because the molecular motion of a gas depends on temperature, at the low temperatures of the Jovian planets even the lightest gases are unlikely to acquire the speed needed to escape.On the other hand, a comparatively warm body with a small surface gravity, like Earth's moon, is unable to hold even the heaviest gas and thus lacks an atmosphere. The slightly larger terrestrial planets Earth, Venus, and Mars retain some heavy gases like carbon dioxide, but even their atmospheres make up only an infinitesimally small portion of their total mass.

thicker adj. 厚的;粗的;浓密的;(询问或说明厚度)有…厚;稠密的;茂密的 thick的比较级

by comparison 通过比较

According to paragraph 5, which of the following statements is true of both Jovian and terrestrial planets?

A. The thicker the atmosphere, the smaller the planet’s mass

B. The more varied the gases in the atmosphere, the higher the temperature

C. The higher the surface gravity, the higher the escape velocity

D. The less the atmosphere contributes to the total mass, the lower the temperature

According to paragraph 5, what is a major reason that Jovian planets have much thicker atmospheres than terrestrial planets do?

A. Jovian planets have lower surface gravities.

B. Jovian planets have lower temperatures.

C. Jovian planets have lower escape velocities.

D. Jovian planets’ gas molecules have higher average speeds.

Paragraph 5 supports which of the following statements about the ability of planets to retain gases?

A. More-massive planets are less able to retain gases than less-massive ones.

B. Planets are more likely to retain heavy gases than light gases.

C. Jovian planets are unlikely to retain the lightest gases.

D. Only terrestrial planets have been able to retain carbon dioxide.

The orderly nature of our solar system leads most astronomers to conclude that the planets formed at essentially the same time and from the same material as the Sun. It is hypothesized that the primordial cloud of dust and gas from which all the planets are thought to have condensed had a composition somewhat similar to that of Jupiter. However, unlike Jupiter, the terrestrial planets today are nearly void of light gases and ices. The explanation may be that the terrestrial planets were once much larger and richer in these materials but eventually lost them because of these bodies' relative closeness to the Sun, which meant that their temperatures were relatively high.

condensed v. 冷凝;凝结;(使)浓缩，变浓，变稠;简缩，压缩 condense的过去分词和过去式

In calling the cloud of gas and dust from which the Sun and all the planets are thought to have condensed "primordial" the author means that the cloud was

A. immense in size

B. composed of similar particles

C. present at the very beginning of our solar system’s formation

D. created from a great variety of different materials

According to paragraph 6, what is a possible explanation for the lack of light gases and ices on terrestrial planets?

A. The location of terrestrial planets caused them to lose some of the materials they once contained.

B. Terrestrial planets were formed much later than Jovian planets.

C. The composition of terrestrial planets was different from that of Jupiter.

D. Terrestrial planets were formed out of different material than the Sun was.

Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. [ ] The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups-gases, rocks, and ices-based on their melting points. [ ] The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. [ ] The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices. [ ]

Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

This explains their relatively low densities.

Directions: From the seven answer choices below, select the two phrases that correctly characterize the terrestrial planets and the three phrases that correctly characterize the Jovian planets. Drag each phrase you select into the appropriate column of the table. Two of the phrases will NOT be used.
This question is worth 3 points.

Answer Chiose:

A. Have relatively small sizes

B. Are grouped in the same category as Pluto

C. Contain relatively high proportions of ices

D. Have relatively high temperatures

E. Have densities that are generally lower than the density of water

F. Have relatively high escape velocities

G. Have a composition closer to that of the cloud from which they condensed

Terrestrial planets

Jovian planets

CFG

[ TOP17 - P1 ] Symbiotic Relationships

A symbiotic relationship is an interaction between two or more species in which one species lives in or on another species. There are three main types of symbiotic relationships: parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism. The first and the third can be key factors in the structure of a biological community; that is, all the populations of organisms living together and potentially interacting in a particular area.

commensalism n. 共栖

significance n. 意义;(尤指对将来有影响的)重要性;含义;意思

disruptive adj. 破坏性的;引起混乱的;扰乱性的

derive v. 得到;获得;(使)产生;取得;(使)起源

Which of the following statements about commensalism can be inferred from paragraph 1?

A. It excludes interactions between more than two species.

B. It makes it less likely for species within a community to survive.

C. Its significance to the organization of biological communities is small.

D. Its role in the structure of biological populations is a disruptive one.

The word “derives” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. digests

B. obtains

C. controls

D. discovers

Parasitism is a kind of predator-prey relationship in which one organism, the parasite, derives its food at the expense of its symbiotic associate, the host. Parasites are usually smaller than their hosts. An example of a parasite is a tapeworm that lives inside the intestines of a larger animal and absorbs nutrients from its host. Natural selection the process that results in the survival of individuals or groups best adjusted to the conditions under which they live favors the parasites that are best able to find and feed on hosts. At the same time, defensive abilities of hosts are also selected for. As an example, plants make chemicals toxic to fungal and bacterial parasites, along with ones toxic to predatory animals (sometimes they are the same chemicals). In vertebrates, the immune system provides a multiple defense against internal parasites.

parasite n. 寄生虫;寄生生物;寄生植物;依赖他人过活者

aggression n. 侵略;侵犯;攻击性;挑衅;好斗情绪

capacities n. 容量;容积;职责;职位;容纳能力;领悟(或理解、办事)能力 capacity的复数

at the expense of 以...为代价，以牺牲...的利益为代价

associate v. 联系;联合;联想; adj. 联合的;副的;有关联的; n. 伙伴;同事;合伙人;

intestine n. 肠

According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of the action of natural selection on hosts and parasites?

A. Hosts benefit more from natural selection than parasites do.

B. Both aggression in predators and defensive capacities in hosts are favored for species survival.

C. The ability to make toxic chemicals enables a parasite to find and isolate its host.

D. Larger size equips a parasite to prey on smaller host organisms.

At times, it is actually possible to watch the effects of natural selection in host-parasite relationships. For example, Australia during the 1940's was overrun by hundreds of millions of European rabbits. The rabbits destroyed huge expanses of Australia and threatened the sheep and cattle industries. In 1950, myxoma virus, a parasite that affects rabbits, was deliberately introduced into Australia to control the rabbit population. Spread rapidly by mosquitoes, the virus devastated the rabbit population. The virus was less deadly to the offspring of surviving rabbits, however, and it caused less and less harm over the years. Apparently, genotypes (the genetic make-up of an organism) in the rabbit population were selected that were better able to resist the parasite. Meanwhile, the deadliest strains of the virus perished with their hosts as natural selection favored strains that could infect hosts but not kill them. Thus, natural selection stabilized this host-parasite relationship.

alter v. 改变;(使)更改;修改(衣服使更合身);改动

introducing v. 把…介绍(给);介绍(讲演者或演员);使尝试;引见; introduce的现在分词

Which of the following can be concluded from the discussion in paragraph 3 about the Australian rabbit population?

A. Human intervention may alter the host, the parasite, and the relationship between them.

B. The risks of introducing outside organisms into a biological community are not worth the benefits.

C. Humans should not interfere in host-parasite relationships.

D. Organisms that survive a parasitic attack do so in spite of the natural selection process.

According to paragraph 3, all of the following characterize the way natural selection stabilized the Australian rabbit population EXCEPT:

A. The most toxic viruses died with their hosts.

B. The surviving rabbits were increasingly immune to the virus.

C. The decline of the mosquito population caused the spread of the virus to decline.

D. Rabbits with specific genetic make-ups were favored.