Ancient Money
    Money as a medium in barter' and trade has always in times found expression

in some form
or other form necessity thereof. In the remotest periods, before gold or silver

were generally in
use, it took the form of animals, oxen', sheep, lambs，shells, etc. Thus people

find used cattle
in Germany，leather in Rome, sugar in the West Indies，shells in Siam, lead in

Burma,
platinum` in Russia, tin in Great Britain, iron and nails' in Scotland, brass in

China, and finally
copper, silver and gold the world over.
    After the decline and fall of the Roman empire, the coinage of money form an

artistic
standpoint began to deteriorate '4, and from the Byzantine period, money became

crude in form
and expression, unequal in shape or value, lacking design and execution. The

early English
Kings coined pennies，but they are crude and uncertain. William the Conqueror,

in 1066，issued
fair specimens of pennies, and Edward 1, in 1280, issued a new coinage of

pennies，half pence
and farthings, but it remained for Queen Elizabeth of England to set a step

forward when she
introduced the first experiment of milling money, instead of hammering, and also

the
establishment in 1600 of a Colonial silver currency for use of the East Indian

Company. After this
period coins began to get more of an even roundness and shape，and all the large

pieces, such as
silver dollars or crowns, show again the gradual improvement and symmetry in the

artistic work
of coinage.
    The Chinese asserts a coinage for forty centuries, and seem to have an

organization all of
their own. Being different from those of all other countries，yet created

through the same
necessity of having some metal of a certain value to use as a medium of exchange

in trade. This
metal，mostly of bronze, finally developed into the familiar round brass coin,

with a square hole
in the center called cash, which has been in use for centuries，the peculiar

hieroglyphics thereon
being generally the emperor's name，authority, and the value, which no doubt

enables a Chinese
scholar to trace back their rulers by this method as one did on the Roman and

other coins. They
also made use of porcelain and small seashells. The coins of Japan issued some

of copper, and
Korea an alloy of both. The holes in these Chinese coins and in almost all coins

of Asiatic
countries, came from the need of stringing them like beads for preservation, as

the Chinese and
Hindu had in the clothes they wore at that time.
The丘rst money used in America was furnished by Great Britain and Spain，but the

limited
amount, scarcity, and need of it, tempted the colony of Massachusetts to create

a small mint in
this country, which they in 1652，where they struck some silver pieces which are

known as Oak
or PINE Tree money, and are quite rare，being the first coins of American

origin.
    During and after the American war for independence, various coins were

struck by private
individuals and by orders of Congress. The state coinage of copper cents began

with New
Hampshire，1776; Vermont and Connecticut, 1785;New Jersey, 1786; New York, 1787;
followed by others until April 2nd, 1792，when President Washington signed a law

to establish a
United States mint, which went into effect at once. On September 21st, three

coinage presses
arrived from Europe and early in October 1792，the first half dimes and a few

copper cents
patterns were struck by the new United States mint. In 1793 the regular issue of

copper cents
began，which first in a number of different styles, such as wreath, link,

liberty cap, etc. In 1794
the first dollar,half dollar and half dime were struck, In 1796 the first

quarter and dime, in 1873
the first trade dollar. Gold coins were also issued by private parties as early

as 1834.
    The study of ancient coins is one of the most interesting historic as well

as artistic subjects.
Some coins are today the only record extant of important events in the world's

history and the
existence of cities and nations long since gone forever.

古代货币
    货币作为媒介，在以货易货和贸易时期表现为几种必要的形式。远古时期，在金或银被
广泛使用之前，它以黄牛、绵羊、羊羔、贝壳等形式存在。至此，人们又发现德国使用牛作

为货币，罗马使用皮革作为货币，西印度群岛使用糖作为货币，泰国使用贝壳作为货币，缅

甸使用铅作为货币，俄国使用白金作为货币，英国使用锡作为货币，苏格兰使用钢和钉子作

为货币，中国使用黄铜作为货币，最后，铜、银和金成为统一的货币形式的雅思代考.
   金和银最初是以团状、块状和条状的形式，称出重量并支付商业贸易中的费用，但是金
属的纯净度很难把握，其大小也不方便携带，团状的体积太大，因而逐渐进行了必要的改变

，并保证能够将其改小或分开，同时发明了一种用手工制作的打在小块金银一侧的印花，这

是为了庆祝它的矿物财富和金子，远古历史上小亚细亚一个叫利地亚的国家发明了印花。利

地亚可能是第一个将狮子作为标志印在钱币一侧的国家。爱琴娜岛的古代希腊人在公元前
700年将乌龟印在第一次铸造的钱币上，这是第一个把天然的银做成钱币的国家。
    实际造币现在已是一个完善的、被公认的行为，希腊人促进了它的发展，他们将乌龟、

猫头鹰、对神明的想象和其他物体印在钱币上，之后，从亚历山大大帝开始，希腊人将粗糙

的肖像、生动的人物和统治者的头像印在钱币上。罗马人使用并改进了这个方法，他们的艺

术变得熟练，直到数个世纪后的今天，大量的罗马硬币和银币都被保存了下来。
    罗马帝国衰落后，铸币形式的艺术化观点开始退化，在拜占庭时期，货币在形式和外观
上变得很粗糙，形状或价值也变得不对等，而且缺乏设计和制作工艺。早期英国国王铸造了
便士，但它们是粗糙和没有确定形状的。1066年，威廉大帝发行了便士铸造的模本。1280年

，爱德华一世发行了新的铸币，新增了半便士和四分之一便士的货币单位，但它只保留到伊

丽莎白女王改进技术—第一次以轧制代替锤击铸造钱币的实验为止。1600年，东印度公司
在殖民地建立并使用了银元流通制。在这之后，货币开始以圆形作为固定形状来使用，并且
所有大块的货币，譬如银元或克朗(在某面印有王冠或戴着王冠的头像的硬币)，再次显示了
在铸币工艺中逐渐改善使其匀称的艺术性。
    中国人声称拥有4000年的货币制度，似乎他们有自己的组织。并且这种制度是通过对
金属的必要使用，从而使货币作为贸易中的交换媒介形成一定价值，这是与其他所有国家不
同的。这种金属，主要是青铜，最后发展成我们熟悉的圆的黄铜硬币，这种使用了几个世纪

的硬币的中心有一个方形的孔，因而，货币上的特权文字也通常是那个年代君主的名字、掌

权的机构和价值量。这无疑使中国学者能通过在罗马货币和在其他硬币上使用的方法来追溯
他们的统治者。除了金属，他们也利用了瓷器和小贝壳。日本发行了一些铜硬币，韩国则使

用铜和青铜的合金。中国和几乎所有亚洲国家的硬币中间都穿有孔，这种孔源于把它们像珠

子一样串起来存放的需要，那时的中国人和印度人穿的衣裳上都带有这种装饰。
    第一次在美国使用的货币是由英国和西班牙供应的，但数额有限导致货币缺乏，由于对
货币急切需要，使得1652年马塞诸塞殖民地创造了一种小硬币，他们造了一种镀银的货币，

即我们所知的橡树币或松树币。这种货币是相当罕见的，并成为美国的货币起源。
    美国独立战争期间及以后，私人铸造了各种各样由国会进行定购的硬币。1776年，以分
为单位的铜币形式在新罕布什尔州开始实施。随后1785,1786,1787年，佛蒙特州和康涅狄
格州、新泽西、纽约也相继分别实施;紧接着一直到1792年4月2日其他州在华盛顿总统签
署法律建立美国货币政策后也马上实施了这一铸币形式，1792年9月21日，3种造币样式
从欧洲到达，10月上旬，刚成立的美国货币机构铸造了早期的5分货币和一些铜分币形式。
1793年，铜分币开始有规律地发行，这些分币一开始不同的数金有不同的样式，誉如花冠
状、链状、便帽状等。1794年，美国制造了第一枚I美元、so美分及5分的硬币;;1796年，制
造了第一枚25美分和1角的硬币;1873年制造了第一枚贸易美元。早在1834年，平民党也
发行了金币。
    研究古硬币是最有趣的历史及艺术性主题之一。如今，有些硬币是唯一记录了世界历史
中发生过的重要事件以及那些存在过但已经消失了的城市和国家的见证。