除了基于Alpha-Beta算法的博弈树并行搜索算法外,还有其他的博弈树搜索算法.现简要介绍如下.
7.1SSS*算法及其并行化
Alpha-Beta算法是一种基于Min-Max方法的固定深度(fixed-depth)搜索算法.说它是固定深度的搜索算法,是因为对每个结点,它依序从左到右搜索其所有子结点.与Alpha-Beta算法相同的是,SSS*算法[19](或者其对称算法DUAL*)也基于Min-Max方法,但与前者不同的是,它使用最佳优先(best-first)策略.即,SSS*算法不以结点在博弈树中所处的位置为标准,而按照它们前途有望的(promising)程度,由高至低搜素结点.
为了实现最佳优先策略,算法维护一个OPEN队列(OPEN list).OPEN队列的每项对应着一个结点,用的形式组织.其中n代表博弈树中的一个结点,s是一个状态标识,可能的取值是LIVE或SOLVED,h被称为merit,是一个实数值.一个使用状态空间搜索(State Space Search)概念描述的SSS*算法如下[20]:
1. 将插入OPEN队列中.
2. 将OPEN队列中h最大的p = 取出.由于OPEN队列是h的非降序列,所以p为队列的第一项.
3. 如果n = root且s = SOLVED 那么p就是目标状态,此时h就是博弈树的最大最小值,否则继续.
4. 通过执行状态空间操作Г,扩充p状态,将所有的输出状态Г(p)按序插入OPEN队列中.如果可能,清除OPEN队列中的多于状态.
5. 跳转到2.
操作Г的情况
输入状态满足条件
操作Г产生的新的状态
不操作
s = SOLVED
n = ROOT
达到最终状态,算法退出,博弈值为h
1
s = SOLVED
n ≠ ROOT
type(n) = MIN
将插入OPEN队列中,清除OPEN队列中满足m是k的祖先的
2
s = SOLVED
n ≠ ROOT
type(n) = MAX
next(n) = NIL
将插入OPEN队列中
3
s = SOLVED
n ≠ ROOT
type(n) = MAX
next(n) = NIL
将插入OPEN队列中
4
s = LIVE
first(n) = NIL
将插在所有merit值次小的项的前面.其中f(n)是结点n的最大最小值.
5
s = LIVE
first(n) ≠ NIL
type(first(n)) = MAX
将插在OPEN队列最前面
6
s = LIVE
first(n) ≠ NIL
type(first(n)) = MIN
将n修改为first(n)
执行下列操作,直到n = NIL
1. 将插在OPEN队列最前面
2. 将n修改为next(n)
的状态空间操作Г
Stockman证明了SSS*算法在某种意义上比Alpha-Beta算法好:它绝不会比Alpha-Beta搜索更多的叶结点.当两个算法搜索同一个良序的博弈树时,它们搜索的叶结点相同,但是平均来看,SSS*算法搜搜的叶结点数比Alpha-Beta算法少.虽然如此,SSS*算法存在着一些问题阻碍了它的实用性:
1. 算法太过复杂,使人难以理解.
2. OPEN队列占用的空间太大,其大小随着博弈树深度的增加而指数增长.
3. 为了维护OPEN队列的有序性,其插入和删除操作花费的时间开销很大.
在基本SSS*算法的基础上,许多改进算法也提出来,例如MT-SSS*算法[10].并行的SSS*算法也被提出来,例如HYBRID算法[21],PARSSS*算法[22]等.这里不做介绍.
7.2ER算法及其并行化
ER(Evaluate-Refute)算法[23]的基本思想是:在评估完一些强制性的工作(mandatorywork)之后,尝试驳斥博弈树中的其他结点.在这一点上它与MWF算法的基本思想有点类似,但是两者又有本质的不同.
ER算法[24]将结点分为E结点(e-node)和R结点(r-node).E结点将会被完全地搜索,而R结点将会进行部分搜索,得到估值后尝试剪除,这个尝试剪枝的过程称为驳斥(refutation).E结点的所有子结点将会被搜索,而R结点只会进行较少的子结点的搜索,少到只有一个子结点被搜索.因此,E结点比R结点开销大(morecostly).
博弈树的每个内部结点只有一个子结点是E结点,称这个结点为该父结点的E子结点.选择任意一个子结点作为E子结点都是允许的,但是为了性能的优化,选择结点n的E子结点的方法如下: ER算法搜索结点的长孙结点们(elder grandchildren),将博弈值最大的长孙结点n''的父结点n'作为n的E子结点.其中,长孙结点即为n的子结点们各自的第一个子结点(eldest child).当得到了结点n的E结点n'之后,算法首先搜索n'的所有子结点(n''除外,因为它的博弈值已经得到了).n剩下的子结点则会按序进行驳斥(refute).
在ER算法的并行实现时,长孙结点可以被同时搜索,因为这些是强制性的工作.又由于这些长孙结点本身又是E结点,所以他们的长孙结点们又也可以递归地并行搜索.如果ER算法只在进行强制性的工作时并行完成,那么E结点的兄弟结点就需要串行地进行驳斥了.但是为了防止处理器的空闲,ER算法还引入了下面两个方法提高并行度:
1. 并行驳斥.当E子结点n的E子结点n'已经搜索完成时,那么n''的兄弟结点可以并行地进行驳斥.
2. 多个E子结点.当E子结点n的E子结点n'已经搜索完成时,在n的子结点中选择次佳的子结点作为n的第二个E子结点.如果n'被证明不是n的最佳子结点(即n的其他结点不能被立即驳斥),那么就用第二个E子结点对其他子结点进行剪枝.
从某种意义上说,ER算法比Alpha-Beta算法的搜索效率低,因为它可能会错过一些深的剪枝(deep cutoff).另一方面,在ER算法上使用迭代深入和最小窗口的方法的效果如何,还需要进一步的实验测试[12].
本文章欢迎转载，请保留原始博客链接http://blog.csdn.net/fsdev/article
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