Part 1 Types and Construction of
Transformer
A Transformer is a device that changes ac electric
energy at one voltage level into ac electric energy at another
voltage level through the action of a magnetic field . It consists
of two or more coil of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic
core . These coils are (usually) not ditected. The only connection
between the coil is the common magnetic flux present within the
core .
One of the tranformer windings is connected to a
source of ac electric power ,and the secong (perhaps third)
transformer winding supplies electric power to loads. The
transformer winding connected to the power source is called the
primary winding or input winding, and the winding connected to the
loads is called the secondary winding or output winding. If these
is a third winding on the transformer, it is called the tertiary
winding.
Power transformer are constructed on one of two
types of cores . One type of construction consists of a simple
rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer windings
wrapped around two sides of the rectangle .This type of
construction is known as core form. The other type consists of a
three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the
center leg . This type of construction is known as shell form .In
either case ,the core is constructed of thin laminations
electrically isolated from each other in order to reduce eddy
currents to a minimun.
The primary and secondary windings in a physical
transformer are wrapped one on top of the other with the
low-voltage winding innermost. Such an arrangement serves two
purposes:1.It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage
winding from the core .2.It results in much less leakage flux than
would be the two windings were separated by a distence on core.
Power transformers are giwen a
variety of differrent names , depending on their use in power
systems.A transformer connected to the output of a genertator and
used to step its voltage up to transformission levels is sometimes
called a unit transformer . The transformer at the other end of
transmission line ,which steps the voltage down from
transformission levels to distrbution levels, is
called a substation transformer .Finally ,the transformer that
takes the distribution voltage and steps it down to final voltage
at which the power is actually used is called a distribution
transformer.All these devices are essentially the same-the only
difference amony them is their intended use.
In addition to the various power transformer, two
special-purpose transformers are used with electric machinery and
power systems. The first of these special transformers is a device
specially designed to sample a high voltage and produce a low
secondary voltage directly proprotional to it.Such a transformer is
called a potentional to its primary voltage;the difference between
a potential transformer and a power transformer is that the
potential transformer is designed to handle only a very small
current . The second type of special transformer is a device
designed to provide a secondary current much smaller than but
directly proportional to its primary current. This device is called
a current transformer.
Part 2 The Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an
input winding and an output winding.The relationships between the
input voltage and the output voltage ,and between the input current
and the output current,are given by two simple equations.
A transformer has turns of wire on its primary side
and rurns of wire on its secondary side .The
relationship between the voltage (t) applied to the primary side of
the transformer and the volatge (t) produced on the secondary side
is
(8-1)
where a is defined to be the turns ratio of the
transformer :
(8-2)
The relationship between the current (t)flowing
into the pramary side of the transformer and the current (t)flowing
out of the secondary side of the transformer is
(8-3)
or (8-4)
in terns of phasor quantities, these equations
are
(8-5)
and (8-6)
Notice that the phase angle of is the same as the
angle of ,and the phase angle of is the same as the phase angle of
. The turns ratio of the the ideal transformer affects the
magnitudes of the volatage and currents ,but not their angles.
Equations (8-1)to (8-2) describe the relationships
between the magnitudes and angles of the voltages and currents on
the primary and sencondary sides of the transformer ,but they leave
one question unanswered :Given that the primary circuit’s voltage
is positive at a specific end of the coil ,what will the polarity
of the secondary circuit’s voltage be?’In real transformers ,it
would only be possible to tell the secondary’s polarity if the
transformer were opened and its windings examined
. To avoid this necessity, transformers utilize the dot convention
.The dots appearing at one end of each winding serve to tell the
polarity of the volatage and current on the secondary side of the
transformer.The relationship is as follows:
(1)If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted
end of the winding with respect to the undotted,then the secondary
voltage will be positive at the dotted end also. Voltage polarities
are the same with respect to the dots on each side of the core.
(2)If the primary current of the transformer flows
into the dotted end of the primary winding ,the sencondary current
will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding .
Part 3 The Equivalent Circuit of a
Transformer
The losses that occur in real transformers have
to be accounted for in any accurate model of transformer behavior
.The major items to be considered in the construction of such a
model are .
(1)Copper( )losses. Copper losses are the resistive
heating loses in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer. They are proportional to square of the current in the
windings.
(2)Eddy current losses .Eddy current losses are
resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer.
(3)Hysteresis losses.These losses are associated
with the rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during
each half-cycle.
(4)Leakage flux .The fluxes which escape the core
and pass through only one of the transformer windings are leakage
fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the
primary and sencondary coils,and the effects of this inductance
must be accounted for.
It is possible to construct an equivalent circuit
that takes into account all the majou imperections in real
transformers. Each major imperfection will be considered in turn
,and its effect will be included in the transformer model .
The easiest effect to model is the copper losses
.Copper losses are resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer core . They are modeled by placing a
resistor in the primary circuit
of the transformer and a resistor in the
secondary circuit.
The leakage flux in the primary winding
produces a voltage and the leskage flux in the
secondary windings produces a voltage .Since much of the
leakage flux path is through air,and since air
has a constant reluctance much higher than the core reluctance, the
flux is directly proportional to primary circuit current
,and the flux is directly proportional to the
sencondary current .
(8-7)
(8-8)
Where is the self-inductance of the primary coil
,and is the selfinductance of the secondary coil . Therefore ,the
leakage flux will be modeled by primary and secondany
inductors.
How can the core excitation effects be modeled? The
magnetization current is a
current proportional(in the unsaturrated region) to the voltage
appied to the core ,and lagging the appied voltage by 90,so it can
be modeled by a reactance connected across the
primary voltage source. The core-loss current is a current
proportional to the voltage applied to the core that is phase with
the applied voltage, so it can be modeled by a resistance connected
across the primary voltage source.(Remember that both these
currents are really nonlinear, so the inductance
and the resistance are at best approximations of
the real exci tation effects.)
The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig.8-1.Notice that the elements forming the execitation branch are
placed inside the primary resistance and the primary inductance
.This is because the votage actually applied to the core is really
equal to the input voltage less the internal voltage drops of the
winding.
Fig.8-1 The model of a real tranformer
Part 4 The
Autotransformer
There are sometimes occasion
when it is desirable to change voltage levels by only a samall
amount .For example ,it may be necessary to
increase a voltage from 110V to 120Vor from 13.2kV to 13.8kV. These
small rises may be made necessary by voltage drops that occur in
power systems a long way from the generators.In such circumstances,
it is wastefull and excessively expensive to wind a transformer
with two full windings ,each rated at about the same voltage . A
special-purpose transformer, called an auto transformer,is used
instead.
A diagram of a step-up autotransformer is shown in
Fig.8-2a, the two coils of the transformer are showm in the
conventioal manner . In Fig.8-2b, the first winding is shown
connected in an additive manner to the secondwinding . Now the
relationship between the voltage on the second winding is given by
the turns ratio of transformer.However , the voltage at the output
of the whole transformer is the
sun of the voltage on the first winding and the voltage on the
second winding . The first winding here is called the common
winding , because its voltage appears on both sides of the
transformer. The smaller winding is called the series winding
,because it is connected in series with the common winding.
(a)
(b)
Fig.8-2 A
transformer with its windings connected in the conventional manner
and reconnected as an autotransformer
Because the transformer coils are physically
connected, a different teminology is used for the
autotransformer than for other types of
transformers.The voltage on the common coil is called the common
voltage , and the current in that coil called the common current .
The voltage on series coil is called the series voltage
,and the current in that coil is called the
series current .The voltage and current on the low-voltage side of
the transformer are called and
respectively,while the corresponding quantities
on the high-voltage side of the transformer are called
and .The primary side of rhe
autotransformer (the side with power into it )can be either the
highvoltage side or the low-voltage side ,depending on wether the
autotransformer is acting as a step-down or a step-up transformer.
Form Fig.9-2b the voltages and currents in the coils are related by
the equation
(8-9)
(8-10)
The voltages in the coils are related to the
voltages at the teminals by the equations
(8-11)
(8-12)
And the currents in the coils are related to the
currents at the teminals by the equations
(8-13)
(8-14)
变压器
第一节 变压器的类型和结构
变压器是通过磁场作用将交流电从某一电压等级转换至另一电压等级的设备。它有两个或多个绕在铁氧体上的绕组构成。通常，绕组之间不直接相连，它们通过铁心内部的主磁通相连接的。
变压器的一个绕组与交流电源连接，第二个绕组(也许第三个绕组)为负载提供电功率。与电源连接的绕组称为一次绕组或输入绕组。与负载连接的绕组称为二次绕组或输出绕组。如有第三绕组转换，称之为第三绕组。
变压器的铁心分为两类。一类是由绕组缠绕在一个简单的矩形钢片叠成的铁芯两边而构成。此类结构的绕组称之为铁芯式结构。另一类是由三分支的钢片叠成，绕组绕在中间的一个分支上。此结构称为框式结构。铁芯不论是芯式还是框式，都是由薄薄的铁芯片做成的。铁芯片之间相互绝缘，以最大限度的降低涡流。
在实际的变压器中，一次绕组和二次绕组一个在另一个的外面，低压绕组在最里面。此类结构安排有二个目的：1、使高压绕组与铁芯之间相互绝缘；2、使漏磁通较二个绕组相互隔开使少的多。
在电力系统中，根据不同的用途，电力变压器有多种不同的名称。与发电机连接并将其电压提高到电网电压的变压器称为升压变压器。在输电线另一端，将电网电压降至配电电压的变压器称为降压变压器。最后，把电压降到能实际应用量级的变压器称为配电变压器。以上变压器的结构基本相同，唯一的区别在于实际用途不同。
除了上述多种变压器之外，在电机与电力系统中还使用两种特殊用途的变压器。第一种专门设计的变压器是用来采样电压，并产生一个低的二次电压，该电压与所采样的电压成正比。此类变压器称为电压互感器。功率变压器中产生的二次侧的电压也与一次侧的电压成正比。但电压互感器与电力变压器的不同在于电压互感器的设计为仅处理较小的电流。第二种专门设计的变压器设计成为用来提供比一次侧的电流要小的多的二次侧电流，且使二次侧的电流与一次侧的电流成比例。此类装置称为电流互感器。
第二节 理想变压器
理想变压器是指具有输入绕组与输出绕组的无损耗的设备。输入电压与输出电压的相互关系，以及输入电流与输出电流的相互关系，如下列两个简单的公式所示。
设变压器在一次绕组上有匝，在二次绕组上有 匝，则一次侧的电压与二次侧的电压的关系式为
(8-1)
其中，a被定义为变压器的匝数比，即
(8-2)
一次绕组的输入电流 (t)与二次绕组的输出电流 (t)之间的关系表达为
(8-3)
或
(8-4)
采用向量表示为
(8-5)
和 (8-6)
注意： 的相角等于 的相角，的相角等于
的相角，理想变压器的匝数比影响电压与电流的大小，但不影响它们的相位。
式(8-1)至(8-6)表达了变压器中的一次绕组与二次绕组中的电压幅值与电压相角之间的关系，以及电流幅值与电流相角之间的关系。但是有一个问题未得到解决：即若在一次回路某一端的电源电压为正极性，那么，二次回路的电压的极性又将如何？在实际应用中，只有拆开变压器并且检测绕组才能变出二次侧的电流电压的极性。为了避免不必要的拆装，在变压器中运用了同名端表示法，即在每一个绕组的一端标注圆点来表示变压器二次绕组的电压与电流的极性，它们的关系如下：
(1)如果一次电压的有标点端相对于无标点的一端为正，那么有标点的一侧也为正，电压极性在绕组两侧与标记一致。
(2)如果电流从变压器的原边有标记端流入，则副边的电流从有标记端流出。
第三节 变压器的等效电路
在任何精确的变压器模型中，均应考虑变压器在工作间的实际损耗，在这些模型中，主要考虑一下内容：
(1)铜损：在变压器一次绕组和二次绕组上，由电阻产生的热损耗称为铜损。铜损与绕组内通过电流的平方成正比。
(2)涡流损耗：涡流损耗是在变压器的铁芯中由于由于电阻而产生的热损耗。
(3)磁滞损耗：这些损耗是铁芯中的磁畴在每个半周期内重新排列而造成的损耗。
(4)漏磁通：漏磁通指从铁芯中泄露出来以致于仅通过变压器的一个绕组的磁通。这些漏磁会在一次绕组和二次绕组中产生自感，因此必须考虑自感所带来的影响。在变压器实际应用中，将上述损耗考虑在内，构成一个等效电路是可能的。主要损耗一次考虑之后，由于这些损耗所产生的影响就被包括在模型中了。
上述损耗中最容易模型化的是铜损。铜损是指在变压器一次绕组和二次绕组上，由于电阻产生的损耗。铜损可以在原边电路上串联一个电阻，以及在次边电路上串联一个电阻
来反应。
在一次绕组中，漏磁通 产生一个电压，在二次绕组中的漏磁通 产生一个电压
，由于漏磁通的泄露路径主要经过空气，且空气的磁阻较铁芯的磁阻打的得多，因此，漏磁通 与一次绕组的电流 成正比。漏磁通
与二次绕组的电流量成正比，即
(8-7)
(8-8)
式中， 为一次绕组的自感值，为二次绕组的自感值。因此，漏磁通可以采用原边电感和副边电感来表示。
怎样模拟铁芯的励磁效应呢？在饱和区域，励磁电流与绕组二端电压成比例，并且相位滞后电压90°，因此可以用一个并联在初级电压二端的电抗
来描述该电流。铁芯损耗电流与铁芯两端的电压成正比，也即与外加电压相同，于是铁损可以用一个与原边电压并联的电阻
来反映。(不要忘记励磁电流和铁损电流均是非线性的，因此磁化电感 和电阻
至多可以近似反映实际的励磁效应。)推出的等效电路如图8-1所示，构成励磁环节的因素在于原边电阻 和原边电感
。这是因为实际加在铁芯绕组上的电压，等于输入电压减去绕组的内部压降。
图8-1 实际变压器的模型
第四节自耦变压器
希望电压作很小改变的情形时有发生，例如，可能需要将电压从110kV升至120kV，或将电压从13.2kV升至13.8kV。需要进行很小的升压的原因是由于在离发电机较远的长距离输电线路上会产生较大的压降(从而导致负荷电压太低)。在这种情况下，若将两个绕组放置在一个变压器内，且每一个绕组的额定电压相等，则造价较高，导致浪费。此时一般使用一种专门的变压器即自耦变压器来代替普通的变压器。
(a)
(b)
图8-2 一个按通常方式绕制的变压器(a)和自耦变压器(b)
在图8-2中显示了升压自耦变压器的示意图。在8-2(a)中变压器的两组绕组是常规方式组织的这在8-2(b)中，一次绕组以附加方式与二次绕组连接在一起。这样一次侧的电压与二次侧的电压相互关系，由变压器的匝数比得出。整个变压器的输出电压是一次侧的电压与二次侧的电压之和。此图中，因为一次侧的电压与变压器两端的电压相等，这个一次绕组称为公共绕组。因为它的电压在原、副边均出现。由于较短的绕组与公共绕组是串联的，所以较短的绕组称为串联绕组。
由于上述变压器绕组是相互连结的，使用自耦变压器这个专业术语以区别其它类型的变压器。公共绕组的电压称为公共电压。公共绕组的电流称为公共电流
。串流绕组的电压称为串联电压 ，串联绕组的电流称为串联电流 。变压器低压绕组一侧的电压与电流分别称为 和
。同时变压器高压绕组一侧相应量为和
。自耦变压器一次绕组(功率流入的一边)既可以是低压绕组也可是高压绕组，这由自耦变压器是作为升压变压器或降压变压器来决定的。由图8-2(b)所示：绕组的电流与电压如下公式表达
(8-9)
(8-10)
各绕组电压与末端电压的关系为：
(8-11)
(8-12)
各绕组电流与末端电流的关系为：
(8-13)
(8-14)
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