群、环、域
群
群的定义
半群
- 满足结合律
含幺半群
- 满足结合律
- 有单位元
群
- 满足结合律
- 有单位元
- 有逆元
Abel群(可换群)
- 满足结合律
- 有单位元
- 有逆元
- 满足交换律
关系
半群 → \rightarrow →含幺半群 → \rightarrow →群 → \rightarrow →Abel群
举例
- 群:(Z,+)
- Abel群:(Q,+),(R,+),(C,+)
群的阶
群G的元素个数 |G| 称为群G的阶
群的运算
- 可换群中的运算称为加法,可换群又叫加群
- 加群的单位元叫零元,逆元叫负元
- 当ab=ba时,(ab)n=anbn
单位元
若存在eL=eR=e,单位元唯一
证明:(证 eL=eLeR=eR)
设有e1,e2,则e1=e1e2=e2
逆元
- 若存在aL-1=aR-1,则aL-1=aR-1=a-1,且逆元唯一
证明:aL-1=aL-1(aaR-1)=aR-1
∃ \exists ∃ a1-1,a2-1,则a1-1=a1-1aa2-1=a2-1 - 性质:
- (a-1)-1=a
- a,b可逆,则ab可逆,(ab)-1=b-1a-1
- a可逆则an可逆,(an)-1=(a-1)n=a-n
例题
半群(G,
⋅
\cdot
⋅)是群的充要条件:
1.G有左单位元eL,
∀
\forall
∀a
∈
\in
∈G,eLa=a
2.
∀
\forall
∀a
∈
\in
∈G,有左逆元a-1,a-1a=eL
证明:
①证左逆元也是右逆元
aa-1=eLaa-1=(a-1)-1a-1aa-1=(a-1)-1eLa-1=(a-1)-1a-1=eL
②证左单位元也是右单位元:
∀ \forall ∀a ∈ \in ∈G,aeL=a(a-1a)=(aa-1)a=eLa
③ ∵ \because ∵ eL为单位元
∴ \therefore ∴ a-1为逆元
子群
表示
子群:S ≤ \leq ≤G 真子群:S<G
子群运算
A,B为G的非空子集,g ∈ \in ∈G
AB={ab | a ∈ \in ∈A,b ∈ \in ∈B}
A-1={a-1 | a ∈ \in ∈A}
gA={ga | g ∈ \in ∈A}
平凡子群
单位子群{e}和群自身为所有群都有的子群,这两个群称为平凡子群
Δ
\Delta
Δ.单群:只有两个子群,单位子群和自身
几个命题
- S ≤ \leq ≤G ⟺ \iff ⟺ ∀ \forall ∀a,b ∈ \in ∈S,a-1 ∈ \in ∈S ⟺ \iff ⟺ ∀ \forall ∀a,b ∈ \in ∈S,ab-1 ∈ \in ∈S
证明:(i) ⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒(ii) 由子群定义可知
(ii) ⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒(iii) ∀ \forall ∀a,b ∈ \in ∈S,b-1 ∈ \in ∈S ∴ \therefore ∴ab-1 ∈ \in ∈S
(iii) ⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒(i) aa-1=e ∈ \in ∈S(单位元),ea-1=a-1 ∈ \in ∈S(逆元)
由b-1 ∈ \in ∈S,ab=a(b-1)-1 ∈ \in ∈S 运算对S封闭
- H ≤ \leq ≤G,则H的单位元为G的单位元
- H1,H2 ≤ \leq ≤G ⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒H1 ⋂ \bigcap ⋂H2 ≤ \leq ≤G
- H1,H2 ≤ \leq ≤G,则H1 ⋃ \bigcup ⋃H2 ≤ \leq ≤G ⟺ \iff ⟺H1 ⊆ \subseteq ⊆H2或H2 ⊆ \subseteq ⊆H1
- H1,H2 ≤ \leq ≤G,则H1H2 ≤ \leq ≤G ⟺ \iff ⟺H1H2=H2H1
证明: ⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒: ∀ \forall ∀ab ∈ \in ∈H1H2,(ab)-1 ∈ \in ∈H1H2
设(ab)-1=a1b1
∴ \therefore ∴ ab=(a1b1)-1=b1-1a1-1 ∈ \in ∈H2H1
∴ \therefore ∴ H1H2 ⊆ \subseteq ⊆H2H1
同理可得H2H1 ⊆ \subseteq ⊆H1H2
∴ \therefore ∴ H1H2=H2H1
⇐ \Leftarrow ⇐: ∀ \forall ∀a1b1,a2b2,(a1b1)(a2b2)-1
= a 1 b 1 b 2 − 1 a 2 − 1 a _ { 1 } b _ { 1 } b _ { 2 } ^ { - 1 } a _ { 2 } ^ { - 1 } a1b1b2−1a2−1= a 1 b ′ a 2 − 1 a _ { 1 } b'a _ { 2 } ^ { - 1 } a1b′a2−1= a 1 a ′ b ′ ′ = a ′ ′ b ′ ′ a _ { 1 } a' b''=a''b'' a1a′b′′=a′′b′′
∴ \therefore ∴ H 1 H 2 H_{1}H_{2} H1H2 ≤ \leq ≤G
元素的阶
- a
∈
\in
∈G,使an=e成立的最小正整数n为a的阶,记o(a)
Δ . o ( e ) = 1 \Delta. o(e)=1 Δ.o(e)=1 - a
∈
\in
∈G,则am=1
⟺
\iff
⟺o(a) | m
⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒:设 o ( a ) = n , 则 m = p n + r , 0 ≤ r < n o ( a ) = n ,则 m = p n + r , 0 \leq r < n o(a)=n,则m=pn+r,0≤r<n
∴ a m = a p n + r = a r = 1 \therefore a ^ { m } = a ^ { p n + r } = a ^ { r } = 1 ∴am=apn+r=ar=1
∵ n 是 使 a m = 1 \because n是使 a ^ { m } = 1 ∵n是使am=1的最小正整数
∴ r = 0 即 m = p n \therefore r = 0 \quad 即m = p n \quad ∴r=0即m=pn
∴ n ∣ m \therefore n|m ∴n∣m
⇐ : n = o ( a ) ∣ m ⇒ m = k n ⇒ a m = a k n = ( a n ) k = 1 \Leftarrow: n = o ( a ) | m \Rightarrow m = k n \Rightarrow a ^ { m } = a ^ { k n } = \left( a ^ { n } \right) ^ { k } = 1 ⇐:n=o(a)∣m⇒m=kn⇒am=akn=(an)k=1 - 有限群每一个元素的阶都有限
- G为群,
a
,
b
∈
G
,
o
(
a
)
=
m
,
o
(
b
)
=
n
,
若
(
m
,
n
)
=
1
,
a
b
=
b
a
,
则
o
(
a
b
)
=
m
n
a , b \in G ,o ( a ) = m , o ( b ) = n,若 ( m , n ) = 1 ,a b = b a,则o ( a b ) = m n
a,b∈G,o(a)=m,o(b)=n,若(m,n)=1,ab=ba,则o(ab)=mn
证明:设 o ( a b ) = k o ( a b ) = k o(ab)=k
∵ ( a b ) m n = a m n b m n = 1 \because ( a b ) ^ { m n } = a ^ { m n } b ^ { m n } = 1 ∵(ab)mn=amnbmn=1
∴ k ∣ m n \therefore k | m n ∴k∣mn
∴ ( a b ) k m = b k m = 1 ∴ n ∣ k m \therefore ( a b ) ^ { k m } = b ^ { k m } = 1 \therefore n | k m ∴(ab)km=bkm=1∴n∣km
∵ ( n , m ) = 1 ∴ n ∣ k \because ( n , m ) = 1 \quad \therefore n | k ∵(n,m)=1∴n∣k
同理 m ∣ k ∴ n m ∣ k m | k \quad \therefore n m | k m∣k∴nm∣k
∴ o ( a b ) = k = m n \therefore o ( a b ) = k = m n ∴o(ab)=k=mn
例题
-
H
⩽
G
⇔
∀
a
,
b
∈
H
,
a
b
∈
H
H \leqslant G \Leftrightarrow \forall a , b \in H , a b \in H
H⩽G⇔∀a,b∈H,ab∈H
⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒:由定义可知
⇐ : ∀ a , b ∈ H , a b ∈ H ⇒ a H = H \Leftarrow: \forall a , b \in H , a b \in H \Rightarrow a H = H ⇐:∀a,b∈H,ab∈H⇒aH=H
∴ \therefore ∴H为半群
∵ \because ∵G中消去律成立
∴ \therefore ∴H中消去律也成立
∴ \therefore ∴H是群 - G是偶数阶群,证明G中存在二阶元
先证大于2的元素个数为偶数个
设 o ( a ) = n ≥ 3 o(a)=n\geq 3 o(a)=n≥3,则 o ( a − 1 ) = n o(a^{-1})=n o(a−1)=n,且 a − 1 ≠ a a^{-1}\neq a a−1=a
∵ \because ∵有一个单位元,G有偶数个元素
∴ \therefore ∴至少有一个二阶元 -
∀
a
,
b
∈
G
,
o
(
a
b
)
=
o
(
b
a
)
\forall a , b \in G , o(ab) = o ( b a )
∀a,b∈G,o(ab)=o(ba)
证明:设 o ( a b ) = n o( a b ) = n \quad o(ab)=n则 ( a b ) n = e ( ab ) ^ { n } = e (ab)n=e
( a b ) n = a ( b a ) ⋯ ( b a ) ⏟ n − 1 = a ( b a ) n − 1 b = e ( a b ) ^ { n } = \underbrace { a ( b a ) \cdots ( b a ) } _ { n - 1 } = a ( b a ) ^ { n - 1 } b = e (ab)n=n−1 a(ba)⋯(ba)=a(ba)n−1b=e
∴ b ( b a ) n = b , ( b a ) n b = b \therefore b( b a ) ^ { n}=b,( b a ) ^ { n}b=b ∴b(ba)n=b,(ba)nb=b
∴ ( b a ) n = e \therefore ( b a ) ^ { n } = e ∴(ba)n=e
∴ o ( a b ) ∣ o ( b a ) \therefore o ( ab ) | o ( b a ) \quad ∴o(ab)∣o(ba)同理 o ( b a ) ∣ o ( a b ) o ( ba ) | o ( ab ) \quad o(ba)∣o(ab)
∴ o ( a b ) = o ( b a ) \therefore o ( a b ) = o ( b a ) ∴o(ab)=o(ba) -
a
∈
G
,
o
(
a
)
=
n
,
则
o
(
a
m
)
=
n
/
(
m
,
n
)
a\in G,o(a)=n,则o(a^{m})=n/(m,n)
a∈G,o(a)=n,则o(am)=n/(m,n)
证能互相整除
设 o ( a m ) = k , ( m , n ) = d o\left( a ^ { m } \right) = k , \quad ( m , n ) = d o(am)=k,(m,n)=d
令 m = r d , n = s d , n / ( m , n ) = s m = r d , n = s d , \quad n / ( m , n ) = s m=rd,n=sd,n/(m,n)=s
①. ( a m ) s = a m s = a n r = e ∴ k ∣ s ( a ^ { m } ) ^ { s } = a ^ { m s } = a ^ { n r } = e \quad \therefore k | s (am)s=ams=anr=e∴k∣s
②. ( a m ) k = a m k = e ∴ n ∣ m k \left( a ^ { m } \right) ^ { k } = a ^ { m k } = e \quad \therefore n | m k (am)k=amk=e∴n∣mk
∴ s∣k ∴ ( r , s ) = 1 ∴ s ∣ k \therefore \operatorname { s | k } \quad\therefore ( r , s ) = 1 \quad \therefore s | k ∴s∣k∴(r,s)=1∴s∣k
∴ k = s \therefore k = s ∴k=s
生成元,同构
生成元
a ∈ G , a \in G ,\quad a∈G, 令 H = { a k ∣ k ∈ Z } H = \left\{ a ^ { k } | k \in Z \right\} H={ak∣k∈Z},此子群为由 a a a 生成的循环子群 < a > <a> <a>,则 a a a为H的生成元
同构
对群
(
G
,
⋅
)
,
(
G
′
,
∘
)
( G , \cdot ) , \quad \left( G ^ { \prime } , \circ \right)
(G,⋅),(G′,∘),若存在双射
f
f
f从G到G’,
f
(
a
⋅
b
)
=
f
(
a
)
∘
f
(
b
)
(
∀
a
,
b
∈
G
)
f ( a \cdot b ) = f ( a ) \circ f ( b ) ( \forall a , b \in G )
f(a⋅b)=f(a)∘f(b)(∀a,b∈G)
则称
f
f
f为G的同构
命题
- ( Z , + ) \left( Z, + \right) (Z,+)的生成元为1或-1
-
(
Z
n
,
+
)
\left( Z _ { n } , + \right)
(Zn,+)的生成元为
a
ˉ
,
(
a
,
n
)
=
1
\bar { a } , ( a , n ) = 1
aˉ,(a,n)=1
证明:设 z n = ⟨ a ˉ ⟩ ∵ 1 ˉ ∈ Z n z _ { n } = \langle \bar { a } \rangle \quad \because \bar{1}\in Z _ { n } zn=⟨aˉ⟩∵1ˉ∈Zn
∴ \therefore ∴必有 k , k a ˉ = 1 ˉ ⇔ ∃ p ∈ Z , k a + p n = 1 k,k\bar{a}=\bar{1} \Leftrightarrow \exists p \in Z , \quad k a + p n = 1 k,kaˉ=1ˉ⇔∃p∈Z,ka+pn=1
⇔ ( a , n ) = 1 \Leftrightarrow( a , n) = 1 ⇔(a,n)=1 - (
Q
,
+
Q,+
Q,+)与(
Q
∗
,
⋅
Q^{*},\cdot
Q∗,⋅)不同构
证明:设(Q,+)与(Q*, ⋅ \cdot ⋅)同构
设 f ( a ) = 2 f(a)=2 f(a)=2 ,则 f ( a ) = f ( a 2 + a 2 ) = f ( a 2 ) f ( a 2 ) = 2 ∉ Q ∗ f(a)=f(\frac{a}{2}+\frac{a}{2})=f(\frac{a}{2})f(\frac{a}{2})=\sqrt{2} \notin Q^{*} f(a)=f(2a+2a)=f(2a)f(2a)=2∈/Q∗ - 循环群的子群仍是循环群,且
(1) ( Z , + ) (Z,+) (Z,+)的全部子群为 H m = ⟨ m ⟩ , m = 0 , 1 , 2 , H_{m}=\langle m \rangle ,m=0,1,2, Hm=⟨m⟩,m=0,1,2,…
(2) ( Z n , + ) (Z_{n},+) (Zn,+)的全部子群为 ⟨ 0 ˉ ⟩ \langle \bar{0}\rangle ⟨0ˉ⟩和 ⟨ d ˉ ⟩ , d ∣ n \lang \bar{d} \rangle,d|n ⟨dˉ⟩,d∣n证明:(1)设 H ⩽ Z , H \leqslant Z , H⩽Z,若 H ≠ { 0 } , H \neq \{ 0 \} , H={0},令 M = { x ∣ x ∈ H , x > 0 } M = \{ x | x \in H , x > 0 \} M={x∣x∈H,x>0}
∵ x ∈ H ∴ x ∈ H ∴ M ≠ ϕ \because x \in H \quad \therefore x \in H \quad \therefore M \neq \phi ∵x∈H∴x∈H∴M=ϕ
由自然数集的良序性可知, M M M存在最小元 m m m
∴ ∀ x ∈ M , x = p m + r , ∴ 0 ≤ r < m , r = x − p m ∈ M \therefore \forall x \in M , \quad x=p m + r , \quad \therefore 0 \leq r < m , r = x - p m \in M ∴∀x∈M,x=pm+r,∴0≤r<m,r=x−pm∈M
由 M M M最小性得 r = 0 ∴ M = { k m ∣ k ∈ Z + } r = 0 \quad \therefore M = \left\{ k m | k \in Z ^ { + } \right\} r=0∴M={km∣k∈Z+}
∴ H = { k m ∣ k ∈ Z } = ⟨ m ⟩ \therefore H = \{ k m | k \in Z \} = \langle m \rangle ∴H={km∣k∈Z}=⟨m⟩
(2) 令 Z n = { 0 ˉ , 1 ˉ , Z _ { n } = \left\{ \bar { 0} , \bar {1} , \right. Zn={0ˉ,1ˉ, ⋯ \cdots ⋯ , n − 1 ‾ } , ,\overline { n - 1 } \}, ,n−1},设 H ⩽ Z , H \leqslant Z , H⩽Z,且 H ≠ { 0 ‾ } H \neq \{ \overline { 0 } \} H={0}
令 M = { k ∣ k ˉ ∈ H \ { 0 ‾ } , k < n } , M ≠ ϕ M = \{ k | \bar { k } \in H \backslash \{ \overline { 0 } \} , k < n \} ,M \neq \phi M={k∣kˉ∈H\{0},k<n},M=ϕ是自然数的子集,且由最小元 d d d
∀ x ∈ M , x = p d + r , 0 ≤ r < d , r ˉ = x ˉ − p d ˉ ∈ H \forall x \in M , x = p d + r , 0 \leq r < d , \bar { r } = \bar { x } - p \bar { d } \in H ∀x∈M,x=pd+r,0≤r<d,rˉ=xˉ−pdˉ∈H
∵ d \because d ∵d为最小元 ∴ r = 0 \quad \therefore r =0 ∴r=0
∴ M = { k d ∣ k > 0 } , H = { k d ˉ ∣ k = 0 , 1 , 2 , ⋯ } \therefore M = \{ kd | k > 0 \} , H = \{ k \bar{d} | k = 0,1,2 , \cdots \} ∴M={kd∣k>0},H={kdˉ∣k=0,1,2,⋯}
由 d d d最小 ⇒ ∃ m ∈ z + , m d = n \Rightarrow \exists m \in z ^ { + } , m d = n ⇒∃m∈z+,md=n
∴ H = { 0 ‾ , d ˉ , 2 d ˉ , ⋯ , ( m − 1 ) d ˉ ⟩ , d ∣ n \therefore H = \{ \overline { 0 } , \bar { d } , \bar { 2d } , \cdots , \bar{(m - 1)d} \rangle,d|n ∴H={0,dˉ,2dˉ,⋯,(m−1)dˉ⟩,d∣n
陪集
几个定价命题
-
a
H
=
H
⇔
a
∈
H
aH = H \Leftrightarrow a\in H
aH=H⇔a∈H
⇐ \Leftarrow ⇐:由定义可知
⇒ : e ∈ H , ∃ h ′ ∈ H , a h ′ = e \Rightarrow: e \in H , \quad \exists h ^ { \prime } \in H , \quad a h ^ { \prime } = e ⇒:e∈H,∃h′∈H,ah′=e -
b
∈
a
H
⇔
a
H
=
b
H
b \in a H \Leftrightarrow a H = b H
b∈aH⇔aH=bH
⇒ : b ∈ a H ∴ ∃ h ′ ∈ H b = a h ′ \Rightarrow: b \in a H \therefore \exist h ^ { \prime } \in H \quad b = a h ^ { \prime } ⇒:b∈aH∴∃h′∈Hb=ah′
b H = a h ′ H = a H b H = a h ^ { \prime } H = a H bH=ah′H=aH
⇐ : e ∈ H \Leftarrow: e \in H \quad ⇐:e∈H be ∈ a H \in aH ∈aH -
a
H
=
b
H
⇔
a
−
1
b
∈
H
(
H
a
=
H
b
⇔
b
a
−
1
∈
H
)
a H = b H \Leftrightarrow a ^ { - 1 } b \in H \left( H a = H b \Leftrightarrow b a ^ { - 1 }\in H \right)
aH=bH⇔a−1b∈H(Ha=Hb⇔ba−1∈H)
⇒ : H = a − 1 b H ∴ a − 1 b ∈ H \Rightarrow: H = a ^ { - 1 } b H \quad \therefore a ^ { - 1 } b \in H ⇒:H=a−1bH∴a−1b∈H
⇐ a − 1 b ∈ H ∃ h ∈ H a − 1 b = h b = a h ∈ a H \Leftarrow a ^ { - 1 } b \in H \quad \exists h \in H \quad a ^ { - 1 } b = h \quad b = a h \in a H ⇐a−1b∈H∃h∈Ha−1b=hb=ah∈aH
子群指数
H ≤ G H \leq G H≤G, H H H在 G G G中的左(右)陪集个数,用 [ G : H ] [ G: H ] [G:H]表示
拉格朗日定理
H ≤ G , ∣ G ∣ = ∣ H ∣ [ G : H ] H \leq G , | G | = | H | [G:H] H≤G,∣G∣=∣H∣[G:H]
- G为有限群, H ≤ G , H\leq G, H≤G,则 ∣ H ∣ ∣ ∣ G ∣ |H| | |G| ∣H∣∣∣G∣
- 当 ∣ G ∣ < ∞ |G| < \infty ∣G∣<∞时, ∀ a ∈ G , o ( a ) ∣ ∣ G ∣ \forall a \in G,o ( a ) | | G | ∀a∈G,o(a)∣∣G∣
- 若
∣
G
∣
=
p
| G | = p
∣G∣=p(素数),则
G
=
C
p
G = C _ { p}
G=Cp,即素数阶群必为循环群
证明: ∀ a ∈ G , a ≠ e \forall a \in G , a \neq e ∀a∈G,a=e,由 ( 2 ) : ∘ ( a ) ∣ ∣ a ∣ = P ( 2 ): \circ ( a ) | | a | = P (2):∘(a)∣∣a∣=P
∵ o ( a ) > 1 ∴ o ( a ) = p \because o ( a ) > 1 \quad \therefore o ( a ) = p ∵o(a)>1∴o(a)=p
∴ G = ⟨ a ⟩ \therefore G=\langle a \rangle ∴G=⟨a⟩
命题
- A = { a H ∣ a ∈ G } A = \{ a H|a \in G \} A={aH∣a∈G}构成划分
- ∣ A B ∣ = ∣ A ∣ ∣ B ∣ ∣ A ∩ B ∣ | A B | = \frac { | A | |B | } { | A \cap B | } ∣AB∣=∣A∩B∣∣A∣∣B∣
-
A
⩽
G
,
B
⩽
G
,
∃
g
,
h
∈
G
,
A
g
=
B
h
,
A \leqslant G , B \leqslant G , \exists g , h \in G , A g = B h ,
A⩽G,B⩽G,∃g,h∈G,Ag=Bh,则$ A = B$
证明: A ⊆ B , A \subseteq B , A⊆B,由于 A g = B h Ag=Bh Ag=Bh
∴ g = b h , ∀ a ∈ A , a b h = a g = b 1 h \therefore g = b h, \quad \forall a \in A,abh=ag=b_{1}h ∴g=bh,∀a∈A,abh=ag=b1h
∴ a = b 1 b − 1 ∈ B \therefore a = b_{1} b ^ { - 1 } \in B ∴a=b1b−1∈B
正规子群和商群
正规子群
H ⩽ G , ∀ g ∈ G , g H = H g , H \leqslant G, \forall g \in G , \quad g H = H g , H⩽G,∀g∈G,gH=Hg,则称H为G的正规子群,记为 H ⊴ G H \unlhd G H⊴G
性质
∀
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\forall a \in G , a H = H a \Leftrightarrow \forall a \in G , \forall h \in H , a h a ^ { - 1 } \in H
∀a∈G,aH=Ha⇔∀a∈G,∀h∈H,aha−1∈H
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\Leftrightarrow \forall a \in G , a H a ^ { - 1 } \subseteq H \Leftrightarrow \forall a \in G , aHa ^ { - 1 } = H
⇔∀a∈G,aHa−1⊆H⇔∀a∈G,aHa−1=H
1 ⇒ 2 : ∀ a ∈ G , ∀ h ∈ H , a h ∈ H a ⇒ a h = h 1 a ⇒ a h a − 1 = h 1 ∈ H 2 ⇒ 3 : a h a − 1 ⇒ a H a − 1 ⊆ H \begin{aligned} 1 \Rightarrow 2 &: \forall a \in G , \forall h \in H , a h \in H a \Rightarrow a h = h_{1} a \\ & \Rightarrow a h a ^ { - 1 } = h_{1} \in H \\ 2 \Rightarrow 3 &: a ha^{-1} \Rightarrow a H a ^ { - 1 } \subseteq H \end{aligned} 1⇒22⇒3:∀a∈G,∀h∈H,ah∈Ha⇒ah=h1a⇒aha−1=h1∈H:aha−1⇒aHa−1⊆H
3 ⇒ 4 : ∀ a ∈ G , a H a − 1 3 \Rightarrow 4: \forall a \in G, aHa^{-1} 3⇒4:∀a∈G,aHa−1 ⊆ H \subseteq H ⊆H
∵ a − 1 ∈ G ∴ a − 1 H ( a − 1 ) − 1 = a − 1 H a ⊆ H \because a ^ { - 1 } \in G \quad \therefore a ^ { - 1 } H \left( a ^ { - 1 } \right)^{-1} = a ^ { - 1 } H a\subseteq H ∵a−1∈G∴a−1H(a−1)−1=a−1Ha⊆H
∀ h ∈ H , a − 1 h a = h 1 ∈ H \forall h \in H , a ^ { - 1 } h a = h_{1}\in H ∀h∈H,a−1ha=h1∈H
∴ h = a h a − 1 ∈ a H a − 1 \therefore h = a h a ^ { - 1 } \in aHa ^ { - 1 } ∴h=aha−1∈aHa−1
∴ H ⊆ a H a − 1 ∴ H = a H a − 1 \therefore H \subseteq a H a ^ { - 1 } \quad \therefore H = a H a ^ { - 1 } ∴H⊆aHa−1∴H=aHa−1
4 ⇒ 1 : a H a − 1 ⇒ ( a H a − 1 ) a = H a ⇒ a H = H a 4\Rightarrow 1: a H a ^ { - 1 } \Rightarrow \left( a H a ^ { - 1 } \right) a = H a \Rightarrow aH=Ha 4⇒1:aHa−1⇒(aHa−1)a=Ha⇒aH=Ha
商群
H ⊴ G , G / H = { a H ∣ a ∈ G } = { H a ∣ a ∈ G } , G / H H \unlhd G,G / H = \{ a H | a \in G \} = \{ H a | a \in G \},G/H H⊴G,G/H={aH∣a∈G}={Ha∣a∈G},G/H关于子集乘法构成的群称为G关于H的商群
命题
- 指数为2的子群为正规子群
证明: H ⩽ G , [ G : H ] = 2 H \leqslant G , \quad [ G: H ] = 2 H⩽G,[G:H]=2
取 G ∈ G G \in G G∈G \ H H \quad H 则 a H ∩ H = ϕ aH \cap H = \phi aH∩H=ϕ
G = H U a H = H U H a G = H U a H = H U H a \quad G=HUaH=HUHa
∴ a H = a \therefore a H = a ∴aH=a \ H = H a H= H a H=Ha
∴ H ⊴ G \therefore H \unlhd G ∴H⊴G -
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A \unlhd G , B \unlhd G ,
A⊴G,B⊴G,则
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A \cap B \unlhd G , A B \unlhd G
A∩B⊴G,AB⊴G
证明:
( 1 ) ∀ h ∈ A ∩ B , g ∈ G (1)\forall h \in A \cap B , g \in G (1)∀h∈A∩B,g∈G
∵ h ∈ A , A ⊴ G \because h \in A , A \unlhd G ∵h∈A,A⊴G
∴ g h g − 1 ∈ A \therefore ghg ^ { - 1 } \in A ∴ghg−1∈A
∵ h ∈ B , B ⊴ G ∴ g h g − 1 ∈ B \because h \in B , B \unlhd G \quad \therefore g h g ^ { - 1 } \in B ∵h∈B,B⊴G∴ghg−1∈B
∴ g h g − 1 ∈ A ∩ B ∴ A ∩ B ⊴ G \therefore g h g ^ { - 1 } \in A \cap B \quad \therefore A \cap B \unlhd G ∴ghg−1∈A∩B∴A∩B⊴G
( 2 ) (2) (2)先证 A B ⩽ G A B \leqslant G \quad AB⩽G
由于 A ⊴ G ∴ A B = B A ∴ A B ≤ G A\unlhd G \quad \therefore A B = B A\quad \therefore A B \leq G A⊴G∴AB=BA∴AB≤G(由子群性质可得)
再证 A B ⊴ G : ∀ g ∈ G , a b ∈ A B A B\unlhd G: \forall g \in G , a b \in A B AB⊴G:∀g∈G,ab∈AB
g a b g − 1 = ( g a g − 1 ) ( g b g − 1 ) = a 1 b 1 ∈ A B g a b g ^ { - 1 } = \left( g a g ^ { - 1 } \right) \left( gbg ^ { - 1 } \right) = a_{1} b_{1} \in A B gabg−1=(gag−1)(gbg−1)=a1b1∈AB
∴ A B ⊴ G \therefore A B \unlhd G ∴AB⊴G -
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A \unlhd G , B \leq G ,
A⊴G,B≤G,则
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A \cap B \unlhd B , A B \leqslant G
A∩B⊴B,AB⩽G
( 1 ) ∀ h ∈ A ∩ B , b ∈ B (1)\forall h \in A \cap B , b \in B (1)∀h∈A∩B,b∈B
∵ h ∈ A , b ∈ G : b h b − 1 ∈ A \because h \in A , b \in G \quad: b h b ^ { - 1 } \in A ∵h∈A,b∈G:bhb−1∈A
∵ h ∈ B ∴ b h b − 1 ∈ B ∴ b h b − 1 ∈ A ∩ B \because h \in B \quad \therefore b h b ^ { - 1 } \in B \quad \therefore b h b ^ { - 1 } \in A \cap B ∵h∈B∴bhb−1∈B∴bhb−1∈A∩B
∴ A ∩ B ⊴ B \therefore A \cap B \unlhd B ∴A∩B⊴B
( 2 ) A ⊴ G ∴ A B = B A ∴ A B ⩽ G (2)A \unlhd G \quad \therefore A B = B A \quad \therefore A B \leqslant G (2)A⊴G∴AB=BA∴AB⩽G
群的同态
定义
两个群
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(G,\cdot )(G',\circ )
(G,⋅)(G′,∘),若存在
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f:G \rightarrow G'
f:G→G′,
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\forall a,b \in G,f(a \cdot b)=f(a) \circ f(b)
∀a,b∈G,f(a⋅b)=f(a)∘f(b),则称
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f是
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G到
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G'
G′的一个同态,表示为
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G \stackrel{f}{\sim } G'
G∼fG′
如果
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f为单射,则称为单同态,
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f为满射,则称为满同态,
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f为双射,则称为同构,同构记为
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G \cong G'
G≅G′
同态基本定理
- 核: G ∼ f G ′ G \stackrel{f}{\sim } G' G∼fG′, K = { a ∣ a ∈ G , f ( a ) = e ′ } = f − 1 ( e ′ ) K = \left\{ a | a \in G , f ( a ) = e' \right\} = f ^ { - 1 } \left( e'\right) K={a∣a∈G,f(a)=e′}=f−1(e′), K K K是同态 f f f的核,记为 K e r f Kerf Kerf
- K K K是群
- K ⊴ G K\unlhd G K⊴G
- ∀ a ′ ∈ I m f , \forall a ^ { \prime } \in Im f , ∀a′∈Imf,若 f ( a ) = a ′ , f ( a ) = a ^ { \prime } , f(a)=a′,则 f − 1 ( a ′ ) = a k f ^ { - 1 } \left( a ^ { \prime } \right) = a k f−1(a′)=ak
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G / K \cong G'
G/K≅G′
证明:
G / K = { g K ∣ g ∈ G } σ : g K → f ( g ) ( G / K → G ′ ) G / K = \{ gK | g \in G \} \quad \sigma : g K \rightarrow f ( g ) \quad (G / K \rightarrow G') G/K={gK∣g∈G}σ:gK→f(g)(G/K→G′)
∀ g 1 , g 2 ∈ G , \forall g_{1} , g _ { 2 } \in G,\quad ∀g1,g2∈G,设 g 1 K = g 2 K g _ { 1 } K = g _ { 2 } K g1K=g2K
则 g 1 − 1 g 2 ∈ K ⇔ f ( g 1 − 1 g 2 ) = e ′ g _ { 1 } ^ { - 1 } g _ { 2 } \in K \Leftrightarrow f \left( g _ { 1 } ^ { - 1 } g_{2} \right) =e' g1−1g2∈K⇔f(g1−1g2)=e′
⇔ f ( g 1 ) = f ( g 2 ) \Leftrightarrow f \left( g _ { 1 } \right) = f \left( g _ { 2 } \right) ⇔f(g1)=f(g2)
∴ σ \therefore \sigma ∴σ为单射
∀ b ∈ G ′ , ∃ a ∈ G , f ( a ) = b \forall b \in G ^ { \prime } , \exists a \in G , f ( a ) = b ∀b∈G′,∃a∈G,f(a)=b
∴ a k ∈ G / K σ ( a k ) = f ( a ) = b \therefore a k \in G / K \quad \sigma ( a k ) = f ( a ) = b ∴ak∈G/Kσ(ak)=f(a)=b
∴ σ \therefore \sigma ∴σ为满射
σ ( g 1 k g 2 k ) = σ ( g 1 g 2 k ) = f ( g 1 g 2 ) \sigma \left( g _{1}k g _ { 2 } k \right) = \sigma \left( g_{1} g_{2} k \right) = f \left( g _ { 1 } g _ { 2 } \right) σ(g1kg2k)=σ(g1g2k)=f(g1g2)
= f ( g 1 ) f ( g 2 ) = σ ( g 1 k ) σ ( g 2 k ) =f \left( g_ { 1 } \right) f ( g_{2} ) = \sigma \left( g_ { 1 } k \right) \sigma ( g_{2}k ) =f(g1)f(g2)=σ(g1k)σ(g2k)
∴ σ \therefore \sigma ∴σ为同构 -
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G \stackrel{f}{\sim } G'
G∼fG′,
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G/K的自然同态,
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∃G/K到
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G′的同构
σ
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f=\sigma \varphi
f=σφ
σ : g K → f ( g ) \sigma : g K \rightarrow f ( g ) σ:gK→f(g)
∀ x ∈ G \forall x\in G ∀x∈G, ( σ φ ) ( x ) = σ ( φ ( x ) ) = σ ( x K ) = f ( x ) (\sigma \varphi)(x)=\sigma(\varphi(x))=\sigma(xK)=f(x) (σφ)(x)=σ(φ(x))=σ(xK)=f(x)
∴ σ φ = f \therefore \sigma \varphi=f ∴σφ=f
环
定义
- A A A是非空集合, ( A , + ) (A,+) (A,+)为可换群, ( A , ⋅ ) (A,\cdot) (A,⋅)为半群,且满足加法和乘法的分配率,则称 ( A , + , ⋅ ) (A,+,\cdot) (A,+,⋅)为环
- 若对乘法可换,则称可换环
零因子
a b = 0 , a ≠ 0 , b ≠ 0 , a ab=0,a\neq0,b\neq0,a ab=0,a=0,b=0,a为零因子,b为右零因子
整环
无零因子的可换环
除环
至少有两个元素:单位元和逆元, A ∗ = A \ { 0 } A^{*}=A\backslash\{0\} A∗=A\{0}构成乘法群
域
- 可换的除环或乘法构成群的整环
- 最简单的域: { 0 , 1 } \{ 0,1 \} {0,1}
- 环无零因子的充分必要条件是乘法消去律成立
- 有限的无零因子环是除环(满足消去律,乘法成群)
- 有限整环是域(同时为除环和整环)
子环
- 子环性质:
- S ⊆ A , ∀ a , b ∈ S , a − b ∈ S , a b ∈ S ⇔ S S\subseteq A,\forall a,b \in S,a-b \in S,ab \in S \Leftrightarrow S S⊆A,∀a,b∈S,a−b∈S,ab∈S⇔S为 A A A的子环
- S 1 , S 2 S_{1},S_{2} S1,S2为 A A A子环 ⇒ S 1 ∩ S 2 \Rightarrow S_{1}\cap S_{2} ⇒S1∩S2为 A A A子环
- 左理想、右理想: 相当于群的陪集
- 理想: 相当于正规子群
- 商环: A A A为环, I I I为 A A A的理想, A A A作为加群关于 I I I的商群 A / I = { a + I ∣ a ∈ A } A/I=\{a+I|a\in A\} A/I={a+I∣a∈A}
环的同构与同态
环 A A A和 A ′ A' A′,有 f : A → A ′ f:A\rightarrow A' f:A→A′, ∀ a , b ∈ A \forall a,b \in A ∀a,b∈A, f ( a + b ) = f ( a ) + f ( b ) f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b) f(a+b)=f(a)+f(b), f ( a b ) = f ( a ) ∘ f ( b ) f(ab)=f(a)\circ f(b) f(ab)=f(a)∘f(b),称 f f f为同态,若 f f f为单射,称单同态,若 f f f为满射,称满同态,若 f f f为双射,称同构
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