swift programming languag 笔记

• If a stored value in your code won’t change, always declare it as a constant with the let keyword. Use variables only for storing values that need to be able to change.
• Unlike a variable, the value of a constant can’t be changed after it’s set.
• semicolons are required if you want to write multiple separate statements on a single line
• Numeric literals can contain extra formatting to make them easier to read. Both integers and floats can be padded with extra zeros and can contain underscores to help with readability. Neither type of formatting affects the underlying value of the literal:

let paddedDouble = 000123.456
let oneMillion = 1_000_000
let justOverOneMillion = 1_000_000.000_000_1

• numeric type conversion method:SomeType(ofInitialValue) is the default way to call the initializer of a Swift type and pass in an initial value.
• The rules for combining numeric constants and variables are different from the rules for numeric literals. The literal value 3 can be added directly to the literal value 0.14159, because number literals don’t have an explicit type in and of themselves. Their type is inferred only at the point that they’re evaluated by the compiler.

The Basic

optionals

an optional represents only two possibilities:

• either there is a value
• or there isn’t a value at all

eg:
int?indicate that the value it contains is optional, meaning that it might contain some Int value, to it might contain no value at all

nil:

you set an optional variable to a valueless state by assigning it the special value nil

• You can’t use nil with non-optional constants and variables. If a constant or variable in your code needs to work with the absence of a value under certain conditions, always declare it as an optional value of the appropriate type.

• Swift’s nil isn’t the same as nil in Objective-C. In Objective-C, nil is a pointer to a nonexistent object. In Swift, nil isn’t a pointer—it’s the absence of a value of a certain type. Optionals of any type can be set to nil, not just object types.

If Statements and Forced Unwrapping

Once you’re sure that the optional does contain a value, you can access its underlying value by adding an exclamation point (!) to the end of the optional’s name.

if convertedNumber != nil {
    print("convertedNumber has an integer value of \(convertedNumber!).")
}

• Trying to use ! to access a nonexistent optional value triggers a runtime error. Always make sure that an optional contains a non-nil value before using ! to force-unwrap its value.

Optional Binding

Optional binding can be used with if and while statements to check for a value inside an optional, and to extract that value into a constant or variable, as part of a single action

if let constantName = someOptional {
    statements
}

• Constants and variables created with optional binding in an if statement are available only within the body of the if statement. In contrast, the constants and variables created with a guard statement are available in the lines of code that follow the guard statement, as described in Early Exit.

Implicitly Unwrapped Optionals

You write an implicitly unwrapped optional by placing an exclamation point (String!) rather than a question mark (String?) after the type that you want to make optional.

let possibleString: String? = "An optional string."
let forcedString: String = possibleString! // requires an exclamation point

let assumedString: String! = "An implicitly unwrapped optional string."
let implicitString: String = assumedString // no need for an exclamation point

• If an implicitly unwrapped optional is nil and you try to access its wrapped value, you’ll trigger a runtime error. The result is exactly the same as if you place an exclamation point after a normal optional that doesn’t contain a value.

Assertions and Preconditions

Assertions help you find mistakes and incorrect assumptions during development, and preconditions help you detect issues in production.

You pass this function an expression that evaluates to true or false and a message to display if the result of the condition is false.

let age = -3
assert(age >= 0, "A person's age can't be less than zero.")
// This assertion fails because -3 is not >= 0.

Basic Operators

Assignment Operator

if x=y {
	// this is not valid, because x = y dose not return a vlaue 
}

Compound Assignment Operators

• The compound assignment operators don’t return a value. For example, you can’t write let b = a += 2.

Comparison Operators

You can compare two tuples if they have the same type and the same number of values.

In contrast, two tuples of type (String, Bool) can’t be compared with the < operator because the < operator can’t be applied to Bool values.

-The Swift standard library includes tuple comparison operators for tuples with fewer than seven elements. To compare tuples with seven or more elements, you must implement the comparison operators yourself.

*Nil-Coalescing Operator(空合运算符)

The nil-coalescing operator (a ?? b) unwraps an optional a if it contains a value, or returns a default value b if a is nil. The expression a is always of an optional type. The expression b must match the type that is stored inside a.

let defaultColorName = "red"
var userDefinedColorName: String?   // defaults to nil

var colorNameToUse = userDefinedColorName ?? defaultColorName
// userDefinedColorName is nil, so colorNameToUse is set to the default of "red"

userDefinedColorName = "green"
colorNameToUse = userDefinedColorName ?? defaultColorName
// userDefinedColorName is not nil, so colorNameToUse is set to "green"

* Range Operators

Closed Range Operator

The closed range operator (a…b) defines a range that runs from a to b, and includes the values a and b. The value of a must not be greater than b.

for index in 1...5 {
	statements 
}

Half-Open Range Operator

The half-open range operator (a…<b) defines a range that runs from a to b, but doesn’t include b.

let name = ["Anna", "Alex", "Brian", "Jack"] 
for index in 0...names.count {
	statements 
}

One-Sided Ranges

The closed range operator has an alternative form for ranges that continue as far as possible in one direction

for name in names[2...] {
    print(name)
}
// Brian
// Jack

for name in names[...2] {
    print(name)
}
// Anna
// Alex
// Brian

The half-open range operator also has a one-sided form that’s written with only its final value

for name in names[..<2] {
    print(name)
}
// Anna
// Alex

Strings and Characters

Multiline String Literals

The string begins on the first line after the opening quotation marks (""") and ends on the line before the closing quotation marks

let softWrappedQuotation = """
The White Rabbit put on his spectacles.  "Where shall I begin, \
please your Majesty?" he asked.

"Begin at the beginning," the King said gravely, "and go on \
till you come to the end; then stop."
"""
"""

A multiline string can be indented to match the surrounding code. The whitespace before the closing quotation marks (""") tells Swift what whitespace to ignore before all of the other lines. However, if you write whitespace at the beginning of a line in addition to what’s before the closing quotation marks, that whitespace is include

Working with Characters

String values can be constructed by passing an array of Character values as an argument to its initializer:

let catCharacters: [Character] = ["C", "a", "t", "!", "🐱"]
let catString = String(catCharacters)

String Interpolation

• The expressions you write inside parentheses within an interpolated string can’t contain an unescaped backslash (), a carriage return, or a line feed. However, they can contain other string literals.

访问和修改字符串

String indices

• Swift strings can’t be indexed by integer values.
  Each String value has an associated index type, String.Index, which corresponds to the position of each Character in the string.

Use the startIndex property to access the position of the first Character of a String. The endIndex property is the position after the last character in a String.

You access the indices before and after a given index using the index(before:) and index(after:) methods of String. To access an index farther away from the given index, you can use the index(_:offsetBy:) method instead of calling one of these methods multiple times.

let greeting = "Guten Tag!"
greeting[greeting.startIndex]
// G
greeting[greeting.index(before: greeting.endIndex)]
// !
greeting[greeting.index(after: greeting.startIndex)]
// u
let index = greeting.index(greeting.startIndex, offsetBy: 7)
greeting[index]
// a

Use the indices property to access all of the indices of individual characters in a string.

for index in greeting.indices {
    print("\(greeting[index]) ", terminator: "")
}
// Prints "G u t e n   T a g ! "

you can use them as well as collection types such as Array, Dictionary and Set

Inserting and Removing

To insert a single character into a string at a specified index, use the insert(_:at:) method, and to insert the contents of another string at a specified index, use the insert(contentsOf:at:) method.

var welcome = "hello"
welcome.insert("!", at: welcome.endIndex)
// welcome now equals "hello!"
welcome.insert(contentsOf: " there", at: welcome.index(before: welcome.endIndex))
// welcome now equals "hello there!"

To remove a single character from a string at a specified index, use the remove(at:) method, and to remove a substring at a specified range, use the removeSubrange(_😃 method:

welcome.remove(at: welcome.index(before: welcome.endIndex))
// welcome now equals "hello there"

let range = welcome.index(welcome.endIndex, offsetBy: -6)..<welcome.endIndex
welcome.removeSubrange(range)
// welcome now equals "hello"

you can use them as well as collection types such as Array, Dictionary and Set

SubStrings

• When you get a substring from a string—for example, using a subscript or a method like prefix(_😃—the result is an instance of Substring, not another string.
• Substrings in Swift have most of the same methods as strings, which means you can work with substrings the same way you work with strings.
• However, unlike strings, you use substrings for only a short amount of time while performing actions on a string. When you’re ready to store the result for a longer time, you convert the substring to an instance of String. For example:

let greeting = "Hello, world!"
let index = greeting.firstIndex(of: ",") ?? greeting.endIndex
let beginning = greeting[..<index]
// beginning is "Hello"

// Convert the result to a String for long-term storage.
let newString = String(beginning)

• String和Substring的区别？

The difference between strings and substrings is that, as a performance optimization, a substring can reuse part of the memory that’s used to store the original string, or part of the memory that’s used to store another substring. (Strings have a similar optimization, but if two strings share memory, they are equal.)

• Substring 为什么不能长期使用？
  As mentioned above, substrings aren’t suitable for long-term storage—because they reuse the storage of the original string, the entire original string must be kept in memory as long as any of its substrings are being used.

Comparing Strings

Prefix and Suffix Equality

let romeoAndJuliet = [
    "Act 1 Scene 1: Verona, A public place",
    "Act 1 Scene 2: Capulet's mansion",
    "Act 1 Scene 3: A room in Capulet's mansion",
    "Act 1 Scene 4: A street outside Capulet's mansion",
    "Act 1 Scene 5: The Great Hall in Capulet's mansion",
    "Act 2 Scene 1: Outside Capulet's mansion",
    "Act 2 Scene 2: Capulet's orchard",
    "Act 2 Scene 3: Outside Friar Lawrence's cell",
    "Act 2 Scene 4: A street in Verona",
    "Act 2 Scene 5: Capulet's mansion",
    "Act 2 Scene 6: Friar Lawrence's cell"
]

var act1SceneCount = 0
for scene in romeoAndJuliet {
    if scene.hasPrefix("Act 1 ") {
        act1SceneCount += 1
    }
}
print("There are \(act1SceneCount) scenes in Act 1")
// Prints "There are 5 scenes in Act 1"



var mansionCount = 0
var cellCount = 0
for scene in romeoAndJuliet {
    if scene.hasSuffix("Capulet's mansion") {
        mansionCount += 1
    } else if scene.hasSuffix("Friar Lawrence's cell") {
        cellCount += 1
    }
}
print("\(mansionCount) mansion scenes; \(cellCount) cell scenes")
// Prints "6 mansion scenes; 2 cell scenes"

Collection Types

泛型类数据，集合类的数据必须一样
Arrays, sets, and dictionaries in Swift are always clear about the types of values and keys that they can store. This means that you cannot insert a value of the wrong type into a collection by mistake. It also means you can be confident about the type of values you will retrieve from a collection.

数组

简便写法

The type of a Swift array is written in full as Array, where Element is the type of values the array is allowed to store. You can also write the type of an array in shorthand form as [Element]. Although the two forms are functionally identical, the shorthand form is preferred and is used throughout this guide when referring to the type of an array.

创建一个空数组

var someInts = [Int]()
print("someInts is of type [Int] with \(someInts.count) items.")
// Prints "someInts is of type [Int] with 0 items."

创建一个带有默认值的数组

var threeDoubles = Array(repeating: 0.0, count: 3)
// threeDoubles is of type [Double], and equals [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]

"+"数组之间的加号

You can create a new array by adding together two existing arrays with compatible types with the addition operator (+). The new array’s type is inferred from the type of the two arrays you add together:

var anotherThreeDoubles = Array(repeating: 2.5, count: 3)
// anotherThreeDoubles is of type [Double], and equals [2.5, 2.5, 2.5]

var sixDoubles = threeDoubles + anotherThreeDoubles
// sixDoubles is inferred as [Double], and equals [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 2.5, 2.5, 2.5]

• 怎么替换数据？

You can also use subscript syntax to change a range of values at once, even if the replacement set of values has a different length than the range you are replacing. The following example replaces “Chocolate Spread”, “Cheese”, and “Butter” with “Bananas” and “Apples”:

shoppingList[4...6] = ["Bananas", "Apples"]
// shoppingList now contains 6 items

• 怎么插入数据？

To insert an item into the array at a specified index, call the array’s insert(_:at:) method:

shoppingList.insert("Maple Syrup", at: 0)
// shoppingList now contains 7 items
// "Maple Syrup" is now the first item in the list

• 怎么删除数据？

Similarly, you remove an item from the array with the remove(at:) method. This method removes the item at the specified index and returns the removed item (although you can ignore the returned value if you do not need it):

let mapleSyrup = shoppingList.remove(at: 0)
// the item that was at index 0 has just been removed
// shoppingList now contains 6 items, and no Maple Syrup
// the mapleSyrup constant is now equal to the removed "Maple Syrup" string

特殊的是可以用removeLast() 删除最后一个数据，避免使用count函数查询数组长度

• 怎么循环得到数组的索引和索引值？

for (index, value) in shoppingList.enumerated() {
    print("Item \(index + 1): \(value)")
}
// Item 1: Six eggs
// Item 2: Milk
// Item 3: Flour
// Item 4: Baking Powder
// Item 5: Bananas

数组.indices 返回索引
数组.enumerated 返回一个元组：索引+索引值

字典

The type of a Swift dictionary is written in full as Dictionary <Key, Value>， You can also write the type of a dictionary in shorthand form as [Key: Value].

创建一个空字典

var namesOfIntegers = [Int: String]()
// namesOfIntegers is an empty [Int: String] dictionary
namesOfIntegers[16] = "sixteen"
// namesOfIntegers now contains 1 key-value pair
namesOfIntegers = [:]
// namesOfIntegers is once again an empty dictionary of type [Int: String]

字典字面量创建字典

var airports = ["YYZ": "Toronto Pearson", "DUB": "Dublin"]

• 怎么去改变字典里某一个值？
  第一种方法：
  You can add a new item to a dictionary with subscript syntax. Use a new key of the appropriate type as the subscript index, and assign a new value of the appropriate type:

airports["LHR"] = "London"
// the airports dictionary now contains 3 items

You can also use subscript syntax to change the value associated with a particular key:

airports["LHR"] = "London Heathrow"
// the value for "LHR" has been changed to "London Heathrow"

第二种方法：
updateValue返回的是一个optional
As an alternative to subscripting, use a dictionary’s updateValue(:forKey:) method to set or update the value for a particular key. Like the subscript examples above, the updateValue(:forKey:) method sets a value for a key if none exists, or updates the value if that key already exists. Unlike a subscript, however, the updateValue(_:forKey:) method returns the old value after performing an update. This enables you to check whether or not an update took place.

• 怎么样去删除一个字典里的值？
  第一种方法：
  You can use subscript syntax to remove a key-value pair from a dictionary by assigning a value of nil for that key:

airports["APL"] = "Apple International"
// "Apple International" is not the real airport for APL, so delete it
airports["APL"] = nil
// APL has now been removed from the dictionary

第二种方法：
Alternatively, remove a key-value pair from a dictionary with the removeValue(forKey:) method. This method removes the key-value pair if it exists and returns the removed value, or returns nil if no value existed:

if let removedValue = airports.removeValue(forKey: "DUB") {
    print("The removed airport's name is \(removedValue).")
} else {
    print("The airports dictionary does not contain a value for DUB.")
}
// Prints "The removed airport's name is Dublin Airport."

• 怎么循环字典里的值

for (airportCode, airportName) in airports {
    print("\(airportCode): \(airportName)")
}
// LHR: London Heathrow
// YYZ: Toronto Pearson

for airportCode in airports.keys {
    print("Airport code: \(airportCode)")
}
// Airport code: LHR
// Airport code: YYZ

for airportName in airports.values {
    print("Airport name: \(airportName)")
}
// Airport name: London Heathrow
// Airport name: Toronto Pearson

• 将字典里的值整合成数组
  If you need to use a dictionary’s keys or values with an API that takes an Array instance, initialize a new array with the keys or values property:

let airportCodes = [String](airports.keys)
// airportCodes is ["LHR", "YYZ"]

let airportNames = [String](airports.values)
// airportNames is ["London Heathrow", "Toronto Pearson"]

Control Flow

For-in Loops

If you don’t need each value from a sequence, you can ignore the values by using an underscore in place of a variable name.

let base = 3
let power = 10
var answer = 1
for _ in 1...power {
    answer *= base
}
print("\(base) to the power of \(power) is \(answer)")
// Prints "3 to the power of 10 is 59049"

改变间隔大小：
Some users might want fewer tick marks in their UI. They could prefer one mark every 5 minutes instead. Use the stride(from:to:by:) function to skip the unwanted marks.

let minuteInterval = 5
for tickMark in stride(from: 0, to: 60, by: minuteInterval) {
    // render the tick mark every 5 minutes (0, 5, 10, 15 ... 45, 50, 55)
}

Closed ranges are also available, by using stride(from:through:by:) instead:

let hours = 12
let hourInterval = 3
for tickMark in stride(from: 3, through: hours, by: hourInterval) {
    // render the tick mark every 3 hours (3, 6, 9, 12)
}

While Loops

Swift provides two kinds of while loops:

• while evaluates its condition at the start of each pass through the loop.
• repeat-while evaluates its condition at the end of each pass through the loop.

while

A while loop starts by evaluating a single condition. If the condition is true, a set of statements is repeated until the condition becomes false.

Here’s the general form of a while loop:

while condition {
    statements
}

repeat while (do while in other languages)

The other variation of the while loop, known as the repeat-while loop, performs a single pass through the loop block first, before considering the loop’s condition.

Here’s the general form of a repeat-while loop:

repeat {
    statements
} while condition

conditional statements

Swift provides two ways to add conditional branches to your code: the if statement and the switch statement. Typically, you use the if statement to evaluate simple conditions with only a few possible outcomes. The switch statement is better suited to more complex conditions with multiple possible permutations and is useful in situations where pattern matching can help select an appropriate code branch to execute.

switch

In its simplest form, a switch statement compares a value against one or more values of the same type.

switch some value to consider {
case value 1:
    respond to value 1
case value 2,
     value 3:
    respond to value 2 or 3
default:
    otherwise, do something else
}

Every switch statement must be exhaustive. That is, every possible value of the type being considered must be matched by one of the switch cases. If it’s not appropriate to provide a case for every possible value, you can define a default case to cover any values that are not addressed explicitly. This default case is indicated by the default keyword, and must always appear last.

No implicit Fallthrough 不存在隐式的贯穿

概括来说，就是switch匹配到了就退出
In contrast with switch statements in C and Objective-C, switch statements in Swift do not fall through the bottom of each case and into the next one by default. Instead, the entire switch statement finishes its execution as soon as the first matching switch case is completed, without requiring an explicit break statement. This makes the switch statement safer and easier to use than the one in C and avoids executing more than one switch case by mistake.

每一个case后面必须有一个语句

let anotherCharacter: Character = "a"
switch anotherCharacter {
case "a": // Invalid, the case has an empty body
case "A":
    print("The letter A")
default:
    print("Not the letter A")
}
// This will report a compile-time error.

Interval Matching

Values in switch cases can be checked for their inclusion in an interval.

let approximateCount = 62
let countedThings = "moons orbiting Saturn"
let naturalCount: String
switch approximateCount {
case 0:
    naturalCount = "no"
case 1..<5:
    naturalCount = "a few"
case 5..<12:
    naturalCount = "several"
case 12..<100:
    naturalCount = "dozens of"
case 100..<1000:
    naturalCount = "hundreds of"
default:
    naturalCount = "many"
}
print("There are \(naturalCount) \(countedThings).")
// Prints "There are dozens of moons orbiting Saturn."

Value Bindings

A switch case can name the value or values it matches to temporary constants or variables, for use in the body of the case. This behavior is known as value binding, because the values are bound to temporary constants or variables within the case’s body.

let anotherPoint = (2, 0)
switch anotherPoint {
case (let x, 0):
    print("on the x-axis with an x value of \(x)")
case (0, let y):
    print("on the y-axis with a y value of \(y)")
case let (x, y):
    print("somewhere else at (\(x), \(y))")
}
// Prints "on the x-axis with an x value of 2"

Compound Cases

Multiple switch cases that share the same body can be combined by writing several patterns after case, with a comma between each of the patterns. If any of the patterns match, then the case is considered to match. The patterns can be written over multiple lines if the list is long. For example:

let someCharacter: Character = "e"
switch someCharacter {
case "a", "e", "i", "o", "u":
    print("\(someCharacter) is a vowel")
case "b", "c", "d", "f", "g", "h", "j", "k", "l", "m",
     "n", "p", "q", "r", "s", "t", "v", "w", "x", "y", "z":
    print("\(someCharacter) is a consonant")
default:
    print("\(someCharacter) is not a vowel or a consonant")
}
// Prints "e is a vowel"

Compound cases can also include value bindings. All of the patterns of a compound case have to include the same set of value bindings, and each binding has to get a value of the same type from all of the patterns in the compound case. This ensures that, no matter which part of the compound case matched, the code in the body of the case can always access a value for the bindings and that the value always has the same type.

let stillAnotherPoint = (9, 0)
switch stillAnotherPoint {
case (let distance, 0), (0, let distance):
    print("On an axis, \(distance) from the origin")
default:
    print("Not on an axis")
}
// Prints "On an axis, 9 from the origin"

Control Transfer Statements

Fallthrough

If you need C-style fallthrough behavior, you can opt in to this behavior on a case-by-case basis with the fallthrough keyword. The example below uses fallthrough to create a textual description of a number.

let integerToDescribe = 5
var description = "The number \(integerToDescribe) is"
switch integerToDescribe {
case 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19:
    description += " a prime number, and also"
    fallthrough
default:
    description += " an integer."
}
print(description)
// Prints "The number 5 is a prime number, and also an integer."

Early Exit

A guard statement, like an if statement, executes statements depending on the Boolean value of an expression. You use a guard statement to require that a condition must be true in order for the code after the guard statement to be executed. Unlike an if statement, a guard statement always has an else clause—the code inside the else clause is executed if the condition is not true.

func greet(person: [String: String]) {
    guard let name = person["name"] else {
        return
    }

    print("Hello \(name)!")

    guard let location = person["location"] else {
        print("I hope the weather is nice near you.")
        return
    }

    print("I hope the weather is nice in \(location).")
}

greet(person: ["name": "John"])
// Prints "Hello John!"
// Prints "I hope the weather is nice near you."
greet(person: ["name": "Jane", "location": "Cupertino"])
// Prints "Hello Jane!"
// Prints "I hope the weather is nice in Cupertino."

相比于可以实现同样功能的 if 语句，按需使用 guard 语句会提升我们代码的可读性。它可以使你的代码连贯的被执行而不需要将它包在 else 块中，它可以使你在紧邻条件判断的地方，处理违规的情况。

Functions

Function Parameters and Return Values

Functions Without Parameters

func sayHelloWorld() -> String {
    return "hello, world"
}
print(sayHelloWorld())
// Prints "hello, world"

Functions With Multiple Parameters

func greet(person: String, alreadyGreeted: Bool) -> String {
    if alreadyGreeted {
        return greetAgain(person: person)
    } else {
        return greet(person: person)
    }
}
print(greet(person: "Tim", alreadyGreeted: true))
// Prints "Hello again, Tim!"

Functions Without Return Values

func greet(person: String) {
    print("Hello, \(person)!")
}
greet(person: "Dave")
// Prints "Hello, Dave!"

函数返回多个值

func minMax(array: [Int]) -> (min: Int, max: Int) {
    var currentMin = array[0]
    var currentMax = array[0]
    for value in array[1..<array.count] {
        if value < currentMin {
            currentMin = value
        } else if value > currentMax {
            currentMax = value
        }
    }
    return (currentMin, currentMax)
}
let bounds = minMax(array: [8, -6, 2, 109, 3, 71])
print("min is \(bounds.min) and max is \(bounds.max)")
// Prints "min is -6 and max is 109"

Function Argument Labels and Parameter Names

Each function parameter has both an argument label and a parameter name. The argument label is used when calling the function; each argument is written in the function call with its argument label before it. The parameter name is used in the implementation of the function. By default, parameters use their parameter name as their argument label.

指定参数标签：

You write an argument label before the parameter name, separated by a space:

func someFunction(argumentLabel parameterName: Int) {
    // In the function body, parameterName refers to the argument value
    // for that parameter.
}

参数标签的使用能够让一个函数在调用时更有表达力，更类似自然语言，并且仍保持了函数内部的可读性以及清晰的意图。

忽略参数标签( _ )

If you don’t want an argument label for a parameter, write an underscore (_) instead of an explicit argument label for that parameter.

func someFunction(_ firstParameterName: Int, secondParameterName: Int) {
    // In the function body, firstParameterName and secondParameterName
    // refer to the argument values for the first and second parameters.
}
someFunction(1, secondParameterName: 2)

If a parameter has an argument label, the argument must be labeled when you call the function.

默认参数标签

You can define a default value for any parameter in a function by assigning a value to the parameter after that parameter’s type. If a default value is defined, you can omit that parameter when calling the function.
先写没有默认值的，再写有默认值的

func someFunction(parameterWithoutDefault: Int, parameterWithDefault: Int = 12) {
    // If you omit the second argument when calling this function, then
    // the value of parameterWithDefault is 12 inside the function body.
}
someFunction(parameterWithoutDefault: 3, parameterWithDefault: 6) // parameterWithDefault is 6
someFunction(parameterWithoutDefault: 4) // parameterWithDefault is 12

可变参数

一个可变参数（variadic parameter）可以接受零个或多个值。函数调用时，你可以用可变参数来指定函数参数可以被传入不确定数量的输入值。通过在变量类型名后面加入（…）的方式来定义可变参数。

func arithmeticMean(_ numbers: Double...) -> Double {
    var total: Double = 0
    for number in numbers {
        total += number
    }
    return total / Double(numbers.count)
}
arithmeticMean(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
// returns 3.0, which is the arithmetic mean of these five numbers
arithmeticMean(3, 8.25, 18.75)
// returns 10.0, which is the arithmetic mean of these three numbers

Structure ans Class

命名方式：
Whenever you define a new structure or class, you define a new Swift type. Give types UpperCamelCase names (such as SomeStructure and SomeClass here) to match the capitalization of standard Swift types (such as String, Int, and Bool). Give properties and methods lowerCamelCase names (such as frameRate and incrementCount) to differentiate them from type names.

Structure and Class Instances

let someResolution = Resolution()
let someVideoMode = VideoMode()

结构体类型成员的逐一构造器

let vga = Resolution(width: 640, height: 480)

Unlike structures, class instances don’t receive a default memberwise initializer.

Structures and Enumerations are value types

In fact, all of the basic types in Swift—integers, floating-point numbers, Booleans, strings, arrays and dictionaries—are value types, and are implemented as structures behind the scenes.

== 集合的特殊性？(字符串，字典，数组，共享内存）==

• Collections defined by the standard library like arrays, dictionaries, and strings use an optimization to reduce the performance cost of copying. Instead of making a copy immediately, these collections share the memory where the elements are stored between the original instance and any copies. If one of the copies of the collection is modified, the elements are copied just before the modification. The behavior you see in your code is always as if a copy took place immediately.

let hd = Resolution(width: 1920, height: 1080)
var cinema = hd

值复制后，占有的是两个内存，两者互不相干，只是值相同罢了

类是引用类型

Unlike value types, reference types are not copied when they are assigned to a variable or constant, or when they are passed to a function. Rather than a copy, a reference to the same existing instance is used.

let tenEighty = VideoMode()
tenEighty.resolution = hd
tenEighty.interlaced = true
tenEighty.name = "1080i"
tenEighty.frameRate = 25.0

let alsoTenEighty = tenEighty
alsoTenEighty.frameRate = 30.0

Effectively, they are just two different names for the same single instance, as shown in the figure below:

因为类是引用类型的，为常量只是这个“地址”不会发生变化，但还是可以改变类里的值

• Note that tenEighty and alsoTenEighty are declared as constants, rather than variables. However, you can still change tenEighty.frameRate and alsoTenEighty.frameRate because the values of the tenEighty and alsoTenEighty constants themselves don’t actually change. tenEighty and alsoTenEighty themselves don’t “store” the VideoMode instance—instead, they both refer to a VideoMode instance behind the scenes. It’s the frameRate property of the underlying VideoMode that is changed, not the values of the constant references to that VideoMode.

恒等运算符

Because classes are reference types, it’s possible for multiple constants and variables to refer to the same single instance of a class behind the scenes. (The same isn’t true for structures and enumerations, because they are always copied when they are assigned to a constant or variable, or passed to a function.)

判定两个常量或者变量是否引用同一个类实例

• Identical to (===)
• Not identical to (!==)

Properties

• Stored properties
  classes, structures
• computed properties
  classes, structures, enumerations

Stored Properties

In its simplest form, a stored property is a constant or variable that is stored as part of an instance of a particular class or structure.

Lazy Stored Properties 延时加载存储属性

指当第一次被调用的时候才会计算其初始值的属性
A lazy stored property is a property whose initial value is not calculated until the first time it is used. You indicate a lazy stored property by writing the lazy modifier before its declaration.

⚠️：
== You must always declare a lazy property as a variable (with the var keyword), because its initial value might not be retrieved until after instance initialization completes. Constant properties must always have a value before initialization completes, and therefore cannot be declared as lazy.==

当属性的值依赖于一些外部因素且这些外部因素只有在构造过程结束之后才会知道的时候，延时加载属性就会很有用。或者当获得属性的值因为需要复杂或者大量的计算，而需要采用需要的时候再计算的方式，延时加载属性也会很有用。

class DataImporter {
    /*
    DataImporter 是一个负责将外部文件中的数据导入的类。
    这个类的初始化会消耗不少时间。
    */
    var fileName = "data.txt"
    // 这里会提供数据导入功能
}

class DataManager {
    lazy var importer = DataImporter()
    var data = [String]()
    // 这里会提供数据管理功能
}

let manager = DataManager()
manager.data.append("Some data")
manager.data.append("Some more data")
// DataImporter 实例的 importer 属性还没有被创建

Property Observers

除了lazy
You can add property observers to any stored properties you define, except for lazy stored properties.

You have the option to define either or both of these observers on a property:

• willSet is called just before the value is stored.设置之前调用
• didSet is called immediately after the new value is stored.设置之后调用

willSet 观察器会将新的属性值作为常量参数传入，在 willSet 的实现代码中可以为这个参数指定一个名称，如果不指定则参数仍然可用，这时使用默认名称 newValue 表示。
同样，didSet 观察器会将旧的属性值作为参数传入，可以为该参数指定一个名称或者使用默认参数名 oldValue。如果在 didSet 方法中再次对该属性赋值，那么新值会覆盖旧的值。

class StepCounter {
    var totalSteps: Int = 0 {
        willSet(newTotalSteps) {
            print("About to set totalSteps to \(newTotalSteps)")
        }
        didSet {
            if totalSteps > oldValue  {
                print("Added \(totalSteps - oldValue) steps")
            }
        }
    }
}
let stepCounter = StepCounter()
stepCounter.totalSteps = 200
// About to set totalSteps to 200
// Added 200 steps
stepCounter.totalSteps = 360
// About to set totalSteps to 360
// Added 160 steps
stepCounter.totalSteps = 896
// About to set totalSteps to 896
// Added 536 steps

Global and Local Variables

全局的常量或变量都是延迟计算的，跟延时加载存储属性相似，不同的地方在于，全局的常量或变量不需要标记 lazy 修饰符。
局部范围的常量和变量从不延迟计算。

Type Properties

You can also define properties that belong to the type itself, not to any one instance of that type. There will only ever be one copy of these properties, no matter how many instances of that type you create. These kinds of properties are called type properties.

== Type properties are useful for defining values that are universal to all instances of a particular type, such as a constant property that all instances can use (like a static constant in C), or a variable property that stores a value that is global to all instances of that type (like a static variable in C).==

⚠️：
Unlike stored instance properties, you must always give stored type properties a default value. This is because the type itself does not have an initializer that can assign a value to a stored type property at initialization time.

Stored type properties are lazily initialized on their first access. They are guaranteed to be initialized only once, even when accessed by multiple threads simultaneously, and they do not need to be marked with the lazy modifier.

类型属性方法：

使用关键字 static 来定义类型属性。在为类定义计算型类型属性时，可以改用关键字 class 来支持子类对父类的实现进行重写。下面的例子演示了存储型和计算型类型属性的语法：

struct SomeStructure {
    static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value."
    static var computedTypeProperty: Int {
        return 1
    }
}
enum SomeEnumeration {
    static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value."
    static var computedTypeProperty: Int {
        return 6
    }
}
class SomeClass {
    static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value."
    static var computedTypeProperty: Int {
        return 27
    }
    class var overrideableComputedTypeProperty: Int {
        return 107
    }
}

Querying and Setting Type Properties

Type properties are queried and set with dot syntax, just like instance properties. However, type properties are queried and set on the type, not on an instance of that type.

Methods

enumeration, structure, class 三者

• 实例方法
• 类型方法
  Methods are functions that are associated with a particular type. Classes, structures, and enumerations can all define instance methods, which encapsulate specific tasks and functionality for working with an instance of a given type. Classes, structures, and enumerations can also define type methods, which are associated with the type itself.

Instance Methods

• 实例方法是不是具体的实例化后才能调用？
  An instance method has implicit access to all other instance methods and properties of that type. An instance method can be called only on a specific instance of the type it belongs to. It cannot be called in isolation without an existing instance.

the self property

• 当有method中有重名的时候，用self指method内的属性
  Every instance of a type has an implicit property called self, which is exactly equivalent to the instance itself. You use the self property to refer to the current instance within its own instance methods.

在实例方法中修改值类型

== 默认情况下，值类型的属性不能在它的实例方法中被修改。==

However, if you need to modify the properties of your structure or enumeration within a particular method, you can opt in to mutating behavior for that method. The method can then mutate (that is, change) its properties from within the method, and any changes that it makes are written back to the original structure when the method ends. The method can also assign a completely new instance to its implicit self property, and this new instance will replace the existing one when the method ends.

struct Point {
    var x = 0.0, y = 0.0
    mutating func moveBy(x deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) {
        x += deltaX
        y += deltaY
    }
}
var somePoint = Point(x: 1.0, y: 1.0)
somePoint.moveBy(x: 2.0, y: 3.0)
print("The point is now at (\(somePoint.x), \(somePoint.y))")
// Prints "The point is now at (3.0, 4.0)"

注意，不能在结构体类型的常量（a constant of structure type）上调用可变方法，因为其属性不能被改变，即使属性是变量属性，

Type Methods

静态属性的值是所有实例化后的值的总和
You can also define methods that are called on the type itself. These kinds of methods are called type methods. ==You indicate type methods by writing the static keyword before the method’s func keyword. == Classes can use the class keyword instead, to allow subclasses to override the superclass’s implementation of that method.

Type methods are called with dot syntax, like instance methods. However, you call type methods on the type, not on an instance of that type. Here’s how you call a type method on a class called SomeClass:

class SomeClass {
    class func someTypeMethod() {
        // type method implementation goes here
        //因为类是特殊的，加个class可以相当于static 
    }
}
SomeClass.someTypeMethod()

一般来说，在类型方法的方法体中，任何未限定的方法和属性名称，可以被本类中其他的类型方法和类型属性引用。一个类型方法可以直接通过类型方法的名称调用本类中的其它类型方法，而无需在方法名称前面加上类型名称。类似地，在结构体和枚举中，也能够直接通过类型属性的名称访问本类中的类型属性，而不需要前面加上类型名称。

struct LevelTracker {
    static var highestUnlockedLevel = 1
    var currentLevel = 1

    static func unlock(_ level: Int) {
        if level > highestUnlockedLevel { highestUnlockedLevel = level }
    }

    static func isUnlocked(_ level: Int) -> Bool {
        return level <= highestUnlockedLevel
    }

    @discardableResult//因为允许在调用 advance(to:) 时候忽略返回值，不会产生编译警告，所以函数被标注为 @discardableResult 属性
    mutating func advance(to level: Int) -> Bool {
        if LevelTracker.isUnlocked(level) {
            currentLevel = level
            return true
        } else {
            return false
        }
    }
}

Inheritance

Classes in Swift can call and access methods, properties, and subscripts belonging to their superclass and can provide their own overriding versions of those methods, properties, and subscripts to refine or modify their behavior. Swift helps to ensure your overrides are correct by checking that the override definition has a matching superclass definition.

SubClassing

Subclassing is the act of basing a new class on an existing class. The subclass inherits characteristics from the existing class, which you can then refine. You can also add new characteristics to the subclass.

class Vehicle {
    var currentSpeed = 0.0
    var description: String {
        return "traveling at \(currentSpeed) miles per hour"
    }
    func makeNoise() {
        // do nothing - an arbitrary vehicle doesn't necessarily make a noise
    }
}


class Bicycle: Vehicle {
    var hasBasket = false
}

Overriding

A subclass can provide its own custom implementation of an instance method, type method, instance property, type property, or subscript that it would otherwise inherit from a superclass. This is known as overriding.

如果要重写某个特性，你需要在重写定义的前面加上 override 关键字。这么做，就表明了你是想提供一个重写版本，而非错误地提供了一个相同的定义。意外的重写行为可能会导致不可预知的错误，任何缺少 override 关键字的重写都会在编译时被认定为错误。

accessing Superclass Methods, Properties, and Subscripts

在合适的地方，你可以通过使用 super 前缀来访问超类版本的方法，属性或下标：

• 在方法 someMethod() 的重写实现中，可以通过 super.someMethod() 来调用超类版本的 someMethod() 方法。
• 在属性 someProperty 的 getter 或 setter 的重写实现中，可以通过 super.someProperty 来访问超类版本的 someProperty 属性。
• 在下标的重写实现中，可以通过 super[someIndex] 来访问超类版本中的相同下标。

Overriding Methods

class Train: Vehicle {
    override func makeNoise() {
        print("Choo Choo")
    }
}

Preventing Overrides

You can prevent a method, property, or subscript from being overridden by marking it as final. Do this by writing the final modifier before the method, property, or subscript’s introducer keyword (such as final var, final func, final class func, and final subscript).

== Any attempt to override a final method, property, or subscript in a subclass is reported as a compile-time error.== Methods, properties, or subscripts that you add to a class in an extension can also be marked as final within the extension’s definition.

类前面加final，这样的类就是不可以被继承的
You can mark an entire class as final by writing the final modifier before the class keyword in its class definition (final class). Any attempt to subclass a final class is reported as a compile-time error.

initialization

Setting Initial Values for Stored Properties

类和结构体的两个初始化过程

• init() 函数
• 赋一个默认值
  Classes and structures must set all of their stored properties to an appropriate initial value by the time an instance of that class or structure is created. Stored properties cannot be left in an indeterminate state.

You can set an initial value for a stored property within an initializer, or by assigning a default property value as part of the property’s definition. These actions are described in the following sections.

initializers

struct Fahrenheit {
    var temperature: Double
    init() {
        temperature = 32.0
    }
}
var f = Fahrenheit()
print("The default temperature is \(f.temperature)° Fahrenheit")
// Prints "The default temperature is 32.0° Fahrenheit"

Default Property Values

如果一个属性总是使用相同的初始值，那么为其设置一个默认值比每次都在构造器中赋值要好。两种方法的最终结果是一样的，只不过使用默认值让属性的初始化和声明结合得更紧密。它能让你的构造器更简洁、更清晰，且能通过默认值自动推导出属性的类型；同时，它也能让你充分利用默认构造器、构造器继承等特性

struct Fahrenheit {
    var temperature = 32.0
}

Customizing Initialization

initialization Parameters

You can provide initialization parameters as part of an initializer’s definition, to define the types and names of values that customize the initialization process. Initialization parameters have the same capabilities and syntax as function and method parameters.

struct Celsius {
    var temperatureInCelsius: Double
    init(fromFahrenheit fahrenheit: Double) {
        temperatureInCelsius = (fahrenheit - 32.0) / 1.8
    }
    init(fromKelvin kelvin: Double) {
        temperatureInCelsius = kelvin - 273.15
    }
}
let boilingPointOfWater = Celsius(fromFahrenheit: 212.0)
// boilingPointOfWater.temperatureInCelsius is 100.0
let freezingPointOfWater = Celsius(fromKelvin: 273.15)
// freezingPointOfWater.temperatureInCelsius is 0.0

带参数标签的

struct Color {
    let red, green, blue: Double
    init(red: Double, green: Double, blue: Double) {
        self.red   = red
        self.green = green
        self.blue  = blue
    }
    init(white: Double) {
        red   = white
        green = white
        blue  = white
    }
}
let magenta = Color(red: 1.0, green: 0.0, blue: 1.0)
let halfGray = Color(white: 0.5)
let veryGreen = Color(0.0, 1.0, 0.0)
// this reports a compile-time error - argument labels are required

不带参数标签的

struct Celsius {
    var temperatureInCelsius: Double
    init(fromFahrenheit fahrenheit: Double) {
        temperatureInCelsius = (fahrenheit - 32.0) / 1.8
    }
    init(fromKelvin kelvin: Double) {
        temperatureInCelsius = kelvin - 273.15
    }
    init(_ celsius: Double) {
        temperatureInCelsius = celsius
    }
}
let bodyTemperature = Celsius(37.0)
// bodyTemperature.temperatureInCelsius is 37.0

可选属性类型

如果你自定义的类型有一个逻辑上允许值为空的存储型属性——无论是因为它无法在初始化时赋值，还是因为它在之后某个时机可以赋值为空——都需要将它声明为 可选类型。可选类型的属性将自动初始化为 nil，表示这个属性是特意在构造过程设置为空。

构造过程中常量属性的赋值

你可以在构造过程中的任意时间点给常量属性赋值，只要在构造过程结束时它设置成确定的值。

class SurveyQuestion {
    let text: String
    var response: String?
    init(text: String) {
        self.text = text
    }
    func ask() {
        print(text)
    }
}
let beetsQuestion = SurveyQuestion(text: "How about beets?")
beetsQuestion.ask()
// Prints "How about beets?"
beetsQuestion.response = "I also like beets. (But not with cheese.)"

Default Initializers

前提是已经提供了所有的默认值，系统会自动提供一个初始化所有默认值的构造函数
Swift provides a default initializer for any structure or class that provides default values for all of its properties and does not provide at least one initializer itself. The default initializer simply creates a new instance with all of its properties set to their default values.

结构体的逐一成员构造器（结构体）

Structure types automatically receive a memberwise initializer if they don’t define any of their own custom initializers. Unlike a default initializer, the structure receives a memberwise initializer even if it has stored properties that don’t have default values.

struct Size {
    var width = 0.0, height = 0.0
}

let twoByTwo = Size(width: 2.0, height: 2.0)

逐一成员构造器可以省略有默认值的参数，但是不能省略没有默认值的参数
When you call a memberwise initializer, you can omit values for any properties that have default values. In the example above, the Size structure has a default value for both its height and width properties. You can omit either property or both properties, and the initializer uses the default value for anything you omit—for example:

let zeroByTwo = Size(height: 2.0)
print(zeroByTwo.width, zeroByTwo.height)
// Prints "0.0 2.0"

let zeroByZero = Size()
print(zeroByZero.width, zeroByZero.height)
// Prints "0.0 0.0"

Intializer Delegation for Value Types 值类型的构造器代理

构造器可以通过调用其它构造器来完成实例的部分构造过程。这一过程称为构造器代理，它能避免多个构造器间的代码重复。

对于值类型，你可以使用 self.init 在自定义的构造器中引用相同类型中的其它构造器。并且你只能在构造器内部调用 self.init。

请注意，如果你为某个值类型定义了一个自定义的构造器，你将无法访问到默认构造器（如果是结构体，还将无法访问逐一成员构造器）。这种限制避免了在一个更复杂的构造器中做了额外的重要设置，但有人不小心使用自动生成的构造器而导致错误的情况。

下面例子定义一个自定义结构体 Rect，用来代表几何矩形。这个例子需要两个辅助的结构体 Size 和 Point，它们各自为其所有的属性提供了默认初始值 0.0。

struct Size {
    var width = 0.0, height = 0.0
}

struct Point {
    var x = 0.0, y = 0.0
}

你可以通过以下三种方式为 Rect 创建实例——使用含有默认值的 origin 和 size 属性来初始化；提供指定的 origin 和 size 实例来初始化；提供指定的 center 和 size 来初始化。在下面 Rect 结构体定义中，我们为这三种方式提供了三个自定义的构造器：

struct Rect {
    var origin = Point()
    var size = Size()
    init() {}

    init(origin: Point, size: Size) {
        self.origin = origin
        self.size = size
    }

    init(center: Point, size: Size) {
        let originX = center.x - (size.width / 2)
        let originY = center.y - (size.height / 2)
        self.init(origin: Point(x: originX, y: originY), size: size)
    }
}

第一个 Rect 构造器 init()，在功能上跟没有自定义构造器时自动获得的默认构造器是一样的。这个构造器是函数体是空的，使用一对大括号 {} 来表示。调用这个构造器将返回一个 Rect 实例，它的 origin 和 size 属性都使用定义时的默认值 Point(x: 0.0, y: 0.0) 和

Size(width: 0.0, height: 0.0)：
let basicRect = Rect()
// basicRect 的 origin 是 (0.0, 0.0)，size 是 (0.0, 0.0)

第二个 Rect 构造器 init(origin:size:)，在功能上跟结构体在没有自定义构造器时获得的逐一成员构造器是一样的。这个构造器只是简单地将 origin 和 size 的实参值赋给对应的存储型属性：

let originRect = Rect(origin: Point(x: 2.0, y: 2.0),
    size: Size(width: 5.0, height: 5.0))
// originRect 的 origin 是 (2.0, 2.0)，size 是 (5.0, 5.0)

第三个 Rect 构造器 init(center:size:) 稍微复杂一点。它先通过 center 和 size 的值计算出 origin 的坐标，然后再调用（或者说代理给）init(origin:size:) 构造器来将新的 origin 和 size 值赋值到对应的属性中：

let centerRect = Rect(center: Point(x: 4.0, y: 4.0),
    size: Size(width: 3.0, height: 3.0))
// centerRect 的 origin 是 (2.5, 2.5)，size 是 (3.0, 3.0)

构造器 init(center:size:) 可以直接将 origin 和 size 的新值赋值到对应的属性中。然而，构造器 init(center:size:) 通过使用提供了相关功能的现有构造器将会更加便捷（而且意图更清晰）。