学术写作(Scientifi & Academic Writing in English)

Rather than ‘Count every word’, we should ‘make every word count’. Remove every useless or extra word.

when writing articles in English:

1.Make the strategy of your text clear, not implicit.
2.Refer immediately to all the main items involved.
3.Make your important points clearly and early.
4.Make the text talk about the text itself.

As you revise, focus on the following:

1.Use precise and specific language throughout.
2.Replace general VERBS with more PRECISE VERBS
3.For more FORMALITY.
4.NOT is weaker than structures with no,none,never, and un-/in-/im-/ forms.
5.Avoid series of short, choppy sentences: link some and embed others within their neighbours.
6.Use short sentences for your strongest statements.
7.Eliminate wordiness.少写没用的话
8.Consider converting PASSIVE to ACTIVE VOICE
9.Improve cohesion gradually through END-FOCUS.

Remember: Focus and Link

\quad Start all of your writing with a fast, disorganised rough draft, because such ‘bad’ texts are the
easiest to improve by means of passive-to-active voice changes, end focus, and linkage.

• Find the most vital, novel word in the sentence, the one revealing the newest information.
• After this word, put a period (full-stop).
• Move all the words following this end focus word to the left. Often the best place to insert words is after a ‘that’ or ‘which,’ .

Title

\quad Although the title is the first part of the research paper that will be read, it is often the last to be
written. Swales & Feak (1994) suggest that the research paper title should:

• Indicate the topic of the study.
• Indicate the scope of the study (i.e., neither overstating nor understating its importance).
• Be self-explanatory to readers in the chosen area.
  Notice: avoid abbreviations in titles unless they are known to the general public.

Authors

\quad Editors often now require a declaration of participation stating each author’s contribution. You must
thus be able to justify the actual contribution of every author listed: Original idea? Planning? Data
collection? Statistics?
more details, check jornal formats.

Abstract

\quad According to Professor Lilleyman (Hall, 2003) an abstract should reveal:

• ‘why what was done was done
• what was done
• what was found
• what was concluded.’

\quad Lilleyman’s rules include the following:

• Include no lines that will appear again in the Introduction.
• Avoid minor aspects of Methods.
• Never end an abstract with the vague, useless line: ‘the findings are discussed.’
• Include confidence intervals (CI) and p values.

\quad the following additional guidelines:

• Keep sentences short
• Be clear and brief and try to avoid abbreviations
• Describe theories, methods and results in the past tense
• Discuss results and conclusions in the present tense; avoid perfect tenses
• Include all appropriate articles (the and a)
• Do not repeat data / information from the article title
• Do not refer to references or study limitations in the abstract

Abstracts must stand alone and be clearly understandable without the text.
\quad Always obey length restrictions set by the submission guidelines. Typically, you’ll want to limit your
abstract to 100 words, 150 or 200 words, depending on the instructions provided. If there is a limit,
follow it.
Don’t repeate abstract lines in the rest of the article.

\quad The most common abstracts have four parts:

1. Problem: This includes the author’s intention, thesis, purpose, hypothesis
   and goal. It answers such questions as: why was the work done? How did
   this goal differ from others? What motivated the research?
2. Methods: This includes the scope, kind of treatment and data used. It
   answers such questions as: What was done and how? What methodology
   was used? What limits were imposed? What was the experimental design?
3. Results: This includes the findings and a summary of the results. The bulk
   of the abstract should be devoted to results.
4. Conclusions: This includes the implications and inferences drawn, the
   value of the findings and the interpretations of the results. In other words,
   what may be concluded?

Tables and Figures

One table per 1000 words is appropriate, laid out tall and narrow — not wide and flat.
Use telegraphic title style without verbs or articles. (无动词或冠词的电报标题样式)
Avoid repeating the table title or figure legend in the text. (不要在文章中重复写表题或图解说明的单词)
Number all tables/ figures in the order of their appearance in the text
Avoid tables containing fewer than six or eight figures. (数据少与8个的话直接描述就行，不用画表格)

Similarly, avoid telling us in the text more than three or four findings from a table. Just generalise
what is most important, the highest or lowest or what is significant. (概括图表中重要的说)
在图表的脚注中解释每个term or abbreviation, 避免读者阅读麻烦
Omit identical words where possible.

Introduction

A good introduction, according to John Swales and Christine Feak (2012), usually contains four
‘moves’ (or strategies):

Move I: Establish the field: Assert briefly the significance, relevance, and importance of your
chosen topic. This usually requires no citation.

\quad Those smart enough to read this publication would not demand evidence.

Move II: Summarise your predecessors’ more general research. Here, we usually find the literature
review.

Move III: Hone in on your own research project. In this ‘however’ move, indicate a gap in knowledge
to be filled, a question to answer.

Move IV: Introduce your own research by stating the question you wish to answer, what you hope
to discover, what hypothesis you will test. Novel methods can earn a brief mention, but rarely will an
Introduction include any results. Check your target journal on this.

The Meterials and Methods Section

When you write your methods section, you’ll want to follow these guidelines:

• Observe strict chronology. Report each step / event in a clear time-order, in the order in
  which each occurred. Never ‘We did X after Y’ or ‘Before we did X, we did Y.’ Write ‘We did Y,
  then X.’
• Write in the past tense. Write long, and then cut, cut, cut out all useless, wasted words.
• Methods will be list-like. If you refuse to use ‘we,’ Methods will require some passive-voice
  verbs, but not at sentence-end, where they sound empty (‘For X, the value of Y’ vs. ‘Y was
  used as the value for X.’ In the active voice: ‘Y served as the value for X.’)
• Hide passive verbs in the middle of the sentence, or substitute adjectives or nouns. (See
  Process Writing.)
• Attempt end focus, but linkage in this list-like section is often impossible.
• Present all that the reader needs to know. Study target-journal Methods sections as a
  guideline.
• Say who did what to whom. When, and precisely how? Define all terms: For ‘high X, ‘delayed
  X,’ or ‘prolonged X’ define how high, long, or prolonged.
• Avoid numbers or letters for groups. ‘Groups A and B’ gain descriptive labels: ‘Milk’ versus
  ‘No-Milk mice’; ‘Term’ versus ‘Pre-term infants’.

Discussion Section

\quad Discussions tend to be the most variable section of a research paper. However, they usually include
the following elements:

• Interpretation of points highlighted in the results section,
• Statement of key strengths or weaknesses of the study,
• Final conclusions, possibly with recommendations for future research.

Gustavii’s ‘recipe’ for a discussion include the following ingredients (with emphasis added):

• Main message. This, says Gustavii, ‘answers the question posed in the Introduction and includes the main supporting evidence.’
• Next, critique your own study. A ‘critical assessment’ will discuss ‘any shortcomings in study design, limitations in methods, flaws in analysis, or validity of assumptions.’
• Provide a ‘comparison to other studies’ to demonstrate if and how other researchers agree with
  you.
• Conclusions provides a place to state your results’ implications and suggest further research. You need no summary of findings here. Here, you reveal the value or consequences of your findings.
• Avoid priority claims such as ‘This is the first report of X’ or ‘We are the first to do this,’ In my own personal view, to modify a claim thus: ‘To (the best of) our knowledge, this may be / seems to be the first report of Y’ is safe.
• Avoid promising to publish more. who know what may happen to hinder further publications.

\quad In close agreement with Gustavii’s Discussion pattern, the Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health
Care offers ‘Instructions for Authors,’ provides a structure for a Discussion section with sub-headings
as follows:

1. Statement of principal findings;
2. Strengths and weaknesses of the study;
3. Strength and weakness in relation to other studies, discussing particularly any differences in
   results;
4. Meaning of the study: possible mechanisms and implications for clinicians or policymakers;
5. Unanswered questions and future research.

References

if there are three or more authors then cite only the name of the first author, followed by ‘et al.’ (e.g. Smith et al., 2009).

Where you cite multiple reference sources together, list them in chronological order (e.g. Wilcove et
al., 2006; Saunders et al., 2008; Opdam et al., 2010; Robinson et al., 2011).

Other considerations

• Prefer reviews and the earliest and best articles. Omit poor, weak papers.
• Check and recheck all references and keep a copy of each reference cited. Errors in
  references (incorrect or inconsistent order of items, punctuation, upper- versus lower-case
  letters, abbreviations) are signs of carelessness. Errors may occur in half a work’s citations.
  Nor is the internet reliable; it too makes mistakes in spelling, dates, or pages. Such errors
  that disillusion editors and reviewers can—publicly—irritate your opponent!
• Study the style of your target journal or the style recommended for university theses.
  Language revisers’ tasks rarely include editing references, so you are on your own! (See page
  14 for an overview of Harvard and Vancouver styles.)
• Each reference mentioned must appear in the works cited list, and you should have read
  them all.
• For ‘personal communication’ data, obtain the permission of the ‘communicator.’ Provide in the text full details concerning the source, stating whether it was ‘oral’ or ‘written.’ No personal communications go into your reference list. List anyone’s submitted and accepted work as ‘in press.’

Citations

\quad Avoid repeating the same citation several times with no intervening citations, You can do this by using pronouns to link findings back to their source

Brown et al (1998) found X. They continued with Z. In their study, A was B; their findings also showed that Y was Z, although Smith et al (2000) have disagreed with their conclusions.

Never repeat parenthetically citation data you have—in Harvard style—already given.

‘Aho found that X is Y (Aho 1991).’
‘X is Y (Aho 1991).’

Sentence-final citations in parentheses save words with no effect on end-focus. Devoting the second most vital position in a sentence to a name is wasteful; instead, place an important word there. You could, for instance, begin the sentence with powerful ‘Never’ or ‘Only.’

For citations from the same year, alphabetise them: (Laos 2000, Kerkel 2007, Laane 2009, Mare 2009, Bo 2010).
For multiple works: ‘(Aho et al 1991, 1993, 2006).’

If, however, you agree closely with Brown, you know Brown personally, or if Brown is your professor,
reviewer, or opponent, then the name as the subject of the sentence might be wise!

For names outside parentheses, journal editors now seem to favour writing ‘… Smith and coworkers (1991) succeeded’ or ‘Brown and colleagues (2000) found X’ rather than ‘et al.,’. Whichever you choose, use it throughout. Synonyms always confuse or irritate readers.

Avoid the too-common Nordic use of ‘e.g.’ in citations: Use ‘see, for example, Aho
1980)…’.

Front issues: To italicise or not

Obey your target-journal style when deciding whether to use italics. Use them for Latin (not only for
in vivo but also for e.g., i.e. , AND for every et al. )? Then you must also use italics for every foreign term.

\quad In these groups of verbs, UPPER case indicates the stressed syllable; ‘+’ means that this verb, spelled thusly, can also serve as a substantive.

to look at	to balance	to be finding out	to show
obSERVE	eVALuate	learn	INdicate
view + / reVIEW +	conSIDer	see	sugGEST
perceive	SPECulate	search +	DEMonstrate
reGARD +	deCIDE	surVEY, (SURvey +)	point out
appROACH +	conCLUDE	inSPECT	exHIBit +
be aWARE of	acKNOWledge	inQUIRE	reVEAL
STUDy +	ADvocate +	QUEry +	disCLOSE
	deFEND	ascerTAIN (=check)	disPLAY+
	conCEDE	exPLORE	ILLustrate
		inVEStigate	exEMplify
		iDENtify	make EVident
		aGREE	conTRAST +
		check +	apPROXimate
		deTECT	COMment on
		unCOVer	asSERT
		deTERmine	TEStify (to)
		asSESS	inTERpret
		ANalyse (vs. anALysis!)	deFINE
		CALculate

to compare	to test	to cause—from outsider, something to devrease	to cause—from outsider, something to increase
conTRAST +	disCERN	reDUCE	raise +
match +	inFORM	curTAIL	adVANCE +
CHARacterise	conFIRM	cut +	AGgravate
probe +	FALsify	deGRADE	AMplify
reLATE	afFIRM	dePRESS	aROUSE
CORrelate +	enSURE	diMINish	ELevate
asSOciate +	esTABlish	drop +	enHANCE
differENtiate	subSTANtiate	imPAIR	enLARGE
disTINguish	VERify	LESsen	enRICH
		LImit +	exCITE
		MINimize	FOSter
		MODerate	HEIGHTen
		resTRICT	imPROVE
		WEAKen	inFLATE
			inTENsify
			lift +
			MAGnify
			proMOTE
			proVOKE
			STRENGTHen

‘ImPLY’ and ‘impliCAtion’ are common & safe, but ‘IMplicate’ always shows blame or guilt.

To end-focus on a digit, use ‘number’ as a verb or ‘figure’ as a noun: ‘Girls NUMbered 71; the FIGure for boys was 11.’

‘Answer’ $\to$ ’reply /resPOND’ (respondents);
‘give’ $\to$ ‘proVIDE / supPLY / FURnish.’
’There is / was / were X’ $\to$ 'X exiSTS / ocCURS / apPEARED / aROSE / eMERGED. '
EXIST permanently,
OCCUR regularly,
APPEAR suddenly,
ARISE theoretically,
EMERGE from something.

‘Regarding this term…’
‘She regarded it as complete.’
‘In regard(s) to this issue…’
‘Involving her was wise.’
‘It involved effort.’
‘Concerning this danger …’
‘The problem concerns funding.’

\quad Academic writing is precise and requires precise verbs. Make sure you select the right one:

account for	Explain the reasons for, giving an indication of all relevant circumstances. Not to be confused with ‘give an account of’ which asks only for a detailed description.
analyse	Study in depth, identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics.
assess	Examine closely, with a view to ‘weighing up’ a particular situation. Consider in a balanced way the strengths and weaknesses of a proposition. State your judgement clearly in the conclusion.
comment	State clearly and in moderate fashion your opinions on the subject in question. Support your views with reference to suitable evidence.
compare	Look for similarities and differences between two or more things.
contrast	Deliberately single out and emphasise the differences and dissimilarities between two or more things.
criticise	Give your judgement about a statement or a body of work; explore its implications, discussing all the available evidence. Be specific in your examination.
define	Set down the precise meaning of something. Be prepared to state the limits of the definition. Take note of multiple meanings if they exist.
describe	Give a detailed and comprehensive account of.
discuss	Investigate and examine by careful argument. Explore the implications and the advantages or disadvantages. Debate the case and possibly consider any alternatives. This is probably the most common instruction term. It is inviting you to say something interesting in response to the topic in question.
evaluate	Make an appraisal of the worth of something in the light of its truth or utility. Emphasise the views of authorities as well as your personal estimation.
examine	Look at the details of whatever is in the statement that follows. This command word has broad similarities with analyse.
explain	Make plain. Account for. Clarify, interpret, and spell out the material you present, giving reasons for important features or developments.
illustrate	Make clear and explicit by the discussion of examples.
justify	To present reasons for conclusions or decisions.
outline	Give the main features or the general principles of a subject, omitting minor details and emphasising structure or arrangement.
review	Make a survey of, examining the subject critically.
summarise	Give a concise account of the main points of a matter, omitting details and examples.

Avoid, Choose

Avoid these	Choose among these
a bit	a little, slightly, somewhat
a couple	two, a pair, a duo (for people, ‘couple’ implies man and woman)
a lot, a lot of, lots of	several, many, multiple (see ‘plenty of’)
anyhow	in any case, in any event, nevertheless, nonetheless
anyway	although, thus, however
besides; too	also, in addition, likewise; furthermore, moreover
enough	sufficient (insufficient is also useful)
fix (verb)	arrange, manage, handle OR repair, renovate, recondition
give (verb)	supply, furnish, offer, provide, yield
gone; none	lacking, absent; missing (think cops)
hard	difficult, demanding, laborious, time-consuming, taxing
let (v)	allow, permit, give permission for
little (= few)	few, insufficient, lacking, rare, scarce, sparse
look for (v)	try to find, seek (sought), search for
make	produce, construct, form, compose, build, create, originate, constitute
plenty of	abundant, ample (vs. sparse), numerous, frequent (occurring over time)
pretty; quite	somewhat, almost, moderately, not uncommon, not infrequent
quite X	very (a weak word), rather, considerably, noticeably, notably, markedly, greatly (I would avoid ‘remarkably’ as too emotional.)
so	therefore, thus, hence
start (v)	begin, initiate, undertake
take (v)	adopt (100%), adapt (with changes), transfer, possess
think X is	consider X to be, judge X to be, deem X to be
though	even though, although, notwithstanding
too	also, in addition, as well as, likewise
try (to)	attempt to / endeavour to
turn out (v)	prove/proven to be X (show by evidence; ‘It proved to be a wise choice.’)
way	means, approach, method, procedure, manner
work out (v)	solve, resolve, determine, devise, OR clarify, elucidateallow, permit, give permission for

Words Confused and Misused

• amount and number: ‘Number’ refers to countable items, as does ‘fewer’, as in fewer cells. Less sugar is uncountable. ‘Each’ and ‘any’ often prove useful when maintaining the singular, as in ‘Of the 10, each patient received 3 g of the drug.’
• any: This is handy to allow you to use the singular and to include zero. Any = 0 → ∞. For instance, ‘We sought correlations between age and enzyme X levels. (They surely existed.) We sought any correlation between age and enzyme X level.’ (Maybe non-existent.)
• chance vs. change: Despite sounding very similar, these are very different words. Be careful regarding which one you. ‘Their first chance to change X will be in 2009.’
• contrary to: This is often overused. ‘On the contrary” (French influence, au contraire?) is
  argumentative. Instead, use Contrary to X is Y’ or ‘In contrast, X seems preferable.’
  Alternatively, you may use ‘Conversely, our mice survived X’ or ‘We chose the opposite.’ ‘The reverse is true.’
• different: Avoid over-use; all things differ. Why use ‘Six different men shared a ward’? Perhaps to stress wide differences, ‘Six widely differing viral species thrived.’ ‘Differ’ is a good, strong
  verb: ‘These patient populations differed in ethnicity.’
• economical: ‘Economic’ has to do with the economy. ‘Economical’ is rare and suggests saving money or cost-efficient. An ecoNOMical person eCONomises.
• effect and affect: ‘EfFECT’ is almost always a noun and ‘afFECT,’ a verb. ‘We affect its effects.’ The rare noun ‘affect’ refers to emotions. ‘He is lacking in affect.’ The rare verb ‘efFECT’ means to establish. ‘We hope to effect changes here!’
• health vs. healthy: She is healthy (adjective). She is in good health (noun).

人名，国家，城市不加冠词
特别的或一般的事用定冠词
不可数名词不加冠词
可数单数加冠词
可数复数不加冠词
第一次提到的new information用不定冠词，提到过的用定冠词the
如果 thing 是 unique, 加定冠词

特殊的情况：

• Body organs — the heart, the liver, the brain, the arm, the kidneys, the bones.
• Institutions and organisations — 机构名缩写的话不加冠词。
• No articles for: biology, birth, both, childhood, death, fifteen, history, Ireland, June, malaria,
  midnight, Monday, noon, oxygen, pregnancy, winter, youth, Table 1, Figure 3.
• Articles with a verb: commit suicide / murder, always without ‘the.’ Murder is a verb; suicide is not.
• None in addresses: Department of Art, University of Texas; Joan Aho, Editor
• No articles for above sea level, below zero, by accident, at once, at present, in case, by chance, in addition, in brief, in contrast, in detail, in effect, in full, in fact, on time, on purpose, within reach, beyond reach, without doubt, without warning