离散数学期末复习

Logic

一些基础性的东西就不在这里赘述了。

Predicates

Quantifier

Something need to be payed attention to

对于$\forall$来说，一般采用的方式为：$\forall x(Q(x)\to P(x))$;
而对于$\exists$来说，一般采用的方式为：$\exists x(Q(x))\wedge P(x))$

Exactly One

Rules of Inference

Set

这节内容较为简单，只列出重要部分

Set Notation with Quantifiers

Property

Generalized Unions and Intersections

One to One Function

Onto Functions

One-to-one and Onto Functions

Inverse Functions

• A function having an inverse function is called invertible
  说明其不是可逆，只需要验证其不是one to one
  要说明其可逆，需要验证它既是one to one 而且onto

Composition of Function

Relation

Representation form

normal form

Graph

Matrix

Relation on One Set

Relation on the set A is a relation from A to A.即为自身和自身的一种关系

Relation Properties（important point）

definition

这里要记清楚定义，用定义来判断

Graph

Matrix

Some special cases

If it only exits one element,then

Combining Relations

set form

Matrix

Composite

表示的形式是从右向左。

Properties

Matrix

和矩阵的乘法类似，每一行乘于每一列对应的元素。
PS：这里的顺序是倒过来的

The property of relation on one set

2.

3.

4.
If R is transitive, Rn is also transitive

n-ary Relation

Closure

Minimum terms are added to R to fulfill the requirements of property P

Reflexive Closure

Symmetric Closure

Transitive Closure

传递闭包是闭包里较为复杂的，这里需仔细复习。

Some rule:

• Let A be a set with n elements, and let R be a relation on A
• If there is a path from a to b, then the length of this path will not exceed n

Theorem

Warshall’s Algorithm

Warshall’s Algorithm can reduce the complexity of R* calculation

用于简化计算。

Theorem

Equivalence

Definition

A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation iff R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive

Partition

1.

2.

3.

Partial Order

• Partially Ordered Set
  
• Comparability
  The elements a and b of a poset(S,$\le$ ) are called comparable if either a$\le$ b or b$\le$ a;
  otherwise, a and b are imcomparable

Non-Strict & Strict Partial Order

Total Order

Lexicographic Order

Lexicographic Order is a generalization of the way the alphabetical order of words is based on the alphabetical order of letters

Hasse Diagrams

Show the partial ordering using a graph

Covering Relation

即为直接相连的意思

Minimal/Maximal Element

在给出的集合中该元素上面或下面没有其他元素了

Least/Greatest Element

在给出的集合中，任意得元素比最大值小，比最小值大

Well Ordered

Lower/Upper Bound

这里的集合范围扩大到全集，对于任意在S上的元素

Greatest Lower/Least Upper Bound

这里即为去其中最小的或最大的边界

Lattice

A partially ordered set in which every pair of elements has both a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound is called a lattice

Distributive Lattice

每行只有1个或2个元素

Bounded Lattice

Complemented Lattice

Counting

一些高中学过比较基础的东西这里就不写了。

permutation and combination

重点：注意隔板法的应用。

Generating Combinations

Next Larger Bit String

从右往左操作，完成一个流程就到下一个数。
这种算法的原理是从右往左，把1置为0，直至到0这位，把后把0这位置为1

Next Larger r-combinations

这里的r是指集合里有多少个元素。
算法的原理是选完小的，再选大的。比如在{1，2，3，4，5，6}中。{1，2，3，4}，{1，2，3，5}，{1，2，4，5}，{1，3，4，5}……

Generating Permutations

The basic Algorithm

即为按字典序排序。
中文翻译过来，过程大致如下：

1. 从右往左找出符合$a_j$<$a_{j+1}$的j的值
2. 找出符合$a_j$<$a_k$的k的值 (k从n开始减小)
3. 互换$a_j$和$a_k$
4. 互换$a_s$和$a_r$ (s从j+1开始增加，r从n开始减小)

r-Permutations

Pigeonhole Principle

• If k is a positive integer and k + 1 or more objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing two or more of the object,called the Dirichlet Drawer Principle。

Generalized Pigeonhole Principle

• If N objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing at least $\lceil N/k\rceil$ objects

Subsequence

• A subsequence of this sequence is a sequence of the form $a_{i_1},a_{i_2},a_{i_3},\cdots a_{i_m}$,where $1<i_1<i_2<\cdots <i_m<N$
• A sequence is called strictly increasing if each term is larger than the one that precedes it(严格单调递增）
• A sequence is called strictly decreasing if each term is smaller than the one that precedes it（严格单调递减）

Theorem

• Every sequence of $n^2$ + 1 distinct real numbers contains a subsequence of length n + 1 that is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing

Ramsey Theory

• Ramsey theory, after the English mathematician F. Ramsey, deals with the distribution of subsets of elements of sets.
• The rules are as follows:
  
  

Recurrence Relations

中文：递推关系

• The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms that precede the first term where the recurrence relation takes effect
• A sequence is determined uniquely by Recurrence relation and Initial conditions.

Solving Linear Recurrence Relation（考试重点）

• The Definition of LiHoReCoCo
  

• The procedure
  

• 如果出现重根的情况，那么第二个参数要多乘一个n

• k 阶的表达式也差不多
  

Generating Functions

Extended Binomial Theorem

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0ex}{}{n}{r}\right)=C(n,r)=C_n^r$$

Graph

Graph structure

2.

However, Multigraph doesn’t allow loop.
3. But Pseudograph is a special multigraph allows loop.

Adjacent/Neighbor

Neighbor Set

Neighbor Set N(v) contains all adjacent vertices of v

Degree

• For undirected graph,number of edges containing that vertex (Adjacent vertex number)
• For directed graph, degrees mean In-Degree and Out-Degree
  
  PS: Pendant vertex means 悬挂点,只有一条边与之相连

Degree Sequence

A degree sequence is a monotonic nonincreasing sequence of the degrees of vertices in an undirected graph.
For emample, (3,2,2,2,1,0)

HandShaking Theorem

中文名：握手定理
1.

2.

3.

Path

A path is simple if all vertices on the path are distinct

Cycle (Circuit)

Acyclic

Connectedness

a-b-e 和 a-e are two connected component

Connectedness

Complete Graph

Cycle Graph

Just a circle

Wheel Graph

just like a wheel ,where there has a middle point

Cube

Bipartite Graph

And the number of vertex in the circle should be even.

Complete Bipartite Graph

Subgraph

Union

Graph Isomorphism

中文名：图形同构

Euler and Hamiltonian Path

Euler Path

欧拉路径判断：能否从某个顶点出发，只经过每条边当且一次
欧拉回路：能否从某个顶点出发，只经过每条边当且一次且最后回到这个顶点

Some Obeservation

Theorem

利用这个定理可以较快得判断是否是欧拉路径

Fleury’s Algorithm

这个算法的目的告诉你欧拉路径怎么走，而前面说的只是判断它是不是欧拉路径。

Hierholzer’s Algorithm

Hamiltonian Path

Dirac’s and Ore’s Theorem

2.

However,

Planar Graph

注意： Planar Graph 是can be drawn, 而plane 是drawn

Region

• boundary
  

• Bridge
  Bridge is on the boundary of only one region (unbounded region)

• Example
  $K_{3,3}$ is not a planar

Euler’s Formular

Corollary

• If a connected planar simple graph, then G has a vertex of degree not exceeding 5
• If a connected planar simple graph has e edges and v vertices with v ≥ 3, then e ≤ 3v – 6
• If a connected planar simple graph has e edges and v vertices with v ≥ 3 and no circuits of length three, then e ≤ 2v – 4
  通过推论来判断该图形是不是planar

Homeomorphic

Kuratowski’s Theorem

The graph is not planar if it contains a nonplanar subgraph.
A graph is nonplanar iif it contains a subgraph homeomorphic to $K_{3,3}$ or $K_5$

Coloring

• Two regions sharing a border are assigned different colors
• The smallest number of colors needed to produce a proper coloring of G

Example

Bipartite Graph only need 2 colors

Small conclusion

Abstract Algebra

• 说明：考试只考Group Theory,所以这里只复习这块的内容

Group

Definition

Any mathematics systems that always havean unique solution

Characteristic: closure,associativity,identity, inverse

* A commutative group is called Abelian Group(a$\cdot$b=b$\cdot$a),in other word,it is symmetric

Therom

1. The identity element of a group is unique
2. If a and b are elements of a group and a • b = e, then b = a-1
3. If a • x = b • x then a = b so as x$\cdot$a=x$\cdot$b
4. The inverse of a • b is $b^{-1}\cdot a^{-1}$
5. $(a^{-1}{)}^{-1}$ = a and $e^{-1}$ = e

Cayley Table

4.Each row and each column of the inner table contains each element exactly once

Law of Exponents

Subgroup

Coset

The subgroup can be shift by operation, which is Coset

Lemma

只要一个成立了，所有都成立。

Theorem

1. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then left cosets of H in G partition G.That means the group G is the disjoint union of the left cosets of H in G
2. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The number of left cosets of H in G is the same as the number of right cosets of H in G
3. Let H be a finite subgroup of a group G.Then each left coset of H in G has the same number of elements as H.

The Theorem above also for right coset

Cyclic Group

• Groups that can be generated in their entirety from one member (called generator) are called cyclic groups.

Theorem

1. Every cyclic group is abelian
2. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic
3. Let G be a cyclic group of order n and suppose that a is a generator for G. Then $a^k$ = e if and only if n divides k。
   也就是说 n 是满足$a^k$ = e的最小的数