CSC8021_computer network_The Physical Layer

The Physical Layer

• Transmission media
• The electromagnetic spectrum（电磁频谱）
• Twisted pair（双绞线）
• Coaxial cable（同轴电缆）
• Power Lines（电源线）
• Fiber Optic Cable（光纤电缆）
• Radio
• Transmission methods
• Error detection / correction

Twisted pair（双绞线）

• Twisting（扭转） reduces noise
- As magnetic fields（磁场） induce currents in opposite directions
• Used for printer cables, telephones
• Sometimes used for small office networks
• Can be used with additional shielding

Coaxial cable

• Good shielding reduces noise
• Traditionally used for Ethernet LANs
• Capable of 1Gbps over 1km

Power Lines

Fiber Optics

Fiber Optic Cable

(a) Side view（侧视图） of a single fiber
(b) End view（端视图） of a sheath（护套） with three fibers
Capable of carrying 100s of Gbps over 100s of kilometers

Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF（甚低频）, LF（低频）, and MF（中频） bands（波段）, radio waves follow the curvature（曲率） of the earth
(b) In the HF (short wave) band, they bounce（反弹） off the ionosphere（电离层）
• Radio enthusiasts use this phenomenon to communicate over great
distances.

Communication Satellites

Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
通信卫星及其一些特性，包括地球上空的高度、往返延迟时间和覆盖全球所需的卫星数量

Mobile phone networks

• A mobile phone sends and receives information by radio communication（无线电通信）. Radio frequency signals（射频信号） are transmitted from the phone to the nearest base station（基站）
• If a person with a mobile phone moves out of one cell and into another, the controlling network hands over communications to the adjacent base station
·移动的电话通过无线电通信（无线电通信）发送和接收信息。无线电频率信号（射频信号）从手机传输到最近的基站（基站）
·如果一个拥有移动的电话的人从一个小区移出并进入另一个小区，则控制网络将通信切换到相邻基站。

Mobile Telephone System

1G (1981) Mobiles with Analog Voice
2G (1992) Mobiles with Digital Voice
3G (2001) Mobiles with Digital Voice and Data
4G (2011) Mobiles with Digital Voice and lots of Data
5G (2019) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G

WiFi

Simplex（单工）/duplex（双工）

Circuits can be designed to permit data to flow in one or both directions. There are three ways to transmit:
a) Simplex - One way communication. Example: keyboard to computer
b)Half-duplex（半双工） -Two way communications link, but only one system can talk at a time. Example: walkie-talkie（对讲机）
c) Full duplex -Transmit in both directions simultaneously. Example: telephone. Most communications systems work full-duplex
电路可以被设计成允许数据在一个或两个方向上流动。有三种传输方式：
a）Simplex -单向通信。示例：键盘到计算机
B）半双工（半双工）-双向通信链路，但一次只能有一个系统进行通信。例如：对讲机（对讲机）
全双工-同时在两个方向上传输。例如：电话。大多数通信系统都是全双工的

Multiplexing（多路技术）

• Multiplexing allows the carrying of multiple signals on a single medium. This allows more efficient use of the transmission medium
There are two major multiplexing techniques:
a) Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) 频分复用
– Takes advantage of the fact that useful bandwidth of the medium exceeds the required bandwidth of a given signal
– Different frequencies used to transmit several signals simultaneously（同时）
b) Time-division multiplexing (TDM)时分复用
– Takes advantage of the fact that achievable bit rate of the medium exceeds the required data rate of a digital signal
– Each signal takes up the transmission medium for a little “time slice”
·多路复用允许在单个介质上承载多个信号。这允许更有效地使用传输介质
有两种主要的多路复用技术：
a）频分复用（FDM）
- 利用介质的有用带宽超过给定信号的所需带宽的事实
- 用于同时传输多个信号的不同频率（同时）
B）时分复用
- 利用介质的可实现比特率超过数字信号的所需数据速率的事实
- 每个信号占用传输介质一个小的“时间片”

Bit encoding（位编码）

Transferring a long stream of bits introduces a synchronisation（同步） problem. The clocks of the sender and receiver never run exactly at the same speed. How is the receiver going to tell where the bit boundaries are? How many ‘1’ bits are in the picture below?
传输长比特流会引入同步（同步）问题。发送者和接收者的时钟永远不会以完全相同的速度运行。接收器如何判断比特边界在哪里？下图中有多少个“1”位？

Bit encoding - synchronization

1. Use a separate clock wire. This is only feasible over very short distances
2. Ensure that the clock signal is embedded（嵌入） into the bit stream（比特流）. Data is encoded in such a way that there is always a signal transition present for every bit of data (RZ/Manchester)
3. Use the bit stream to synchronise the receiver clock occasionally. This requires the guaranteed occasional presence of signal transitions (NRZI)
4. 1.使用单独的时钟线。这只在很短的距离内可行
   2.确保时钟信号嵌入（嵌入）比特流（比特流）。数据以这样一种方式编码，即每一位数据（RZ/曼彻斯特）都有一个信号转换。
   3.偶尔使用比特流来同步接收器时钟。这需要保证偶尔出现信号转换（NRZI）
   

Parity bit

Hamming Distance（汉明距离）

The Hamming distance between two strings (code words) of equal length is the number of positions at which the corresponding（对应的） symbols are different. In other words, it measures the minimum number of substitutions required to change one string into the other, or the minimum number of errors that could have transformed one string into the other.
汉明距离：两个数二进制对应位不同的数量。