Android processgroup机制

最新推荐文章于 2024-07-03 15:19:20 发布

chongyuzhao

最新推荐文章于 2024-07-03 15:19:20 发布

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分类专栏： Android案例分析 Android 文章标签： android

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Android processgroup在init secondstate的SetupCgroupAction时进行初始化。

初始化cgroups

task_profiles

task_profiles.json文件中记录了两种类型数据 -- Attributes和profiles。Attributes的格式为：

    {
      "Name": "LowCapacityCPUs",
      "Controller": "cpuset",
      "File": "background/cpus"
    },

Name指当前的Attribute的名字，Controller是指所归属于哪个cgroups的subsystem，File是指该controller的VFS目录下的子节点路径。

profiles的格式如下：

    {
      "Name": "HighEnergySaving",
      "Actions": [
        {
          "Name": "JoinCgroup",
          "Params":
          {
            "Controller": "schedtune",
            "Path": "background"
          }
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "Name": "TimerSlackHigh",
      "Actions": [
        {
          "Name": "SetTimerSlack",
          "Params":
          {
            "Slack": "40000000"
          }
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "Name": "LowMemoryUsage",
      "Actions": [
        {
          "Name": "SetAttribute",
          "Params":
          {
            "Name": "MemSoftLimit",
            "Value": "16MB"
          }
        },
        {
          "Name": "SetAttribute",
          "Params":
          {
            "Name": "MemSwappiness",
            "Value": "150"

          }
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "Name": "PerfBoost",
      "Actions": [
        {
          "Name": "SetClamps",
          "Params":
          {
            "Boost": "50%",
            "Clamp": "0"
          }
        }
      ]
    },

每个profile中都有一个name，然后剩下的字段就是Actions，每个profile可以有多个Actions，profile支持4种Action -- JoinCgroup、SetTimerSlack、SetAttribute以及SetClamps。

JoinCgroup

JoinCgroup只有两个参数 -- controller和Path，Controller仍是指cgroups的subsystem，path则是指该subsystem下的路径，也就是子group。这个Action的含义很明显，就是将设置成这个profile的process加入到该subsystem的子group中，受这个group的资源限制。

而在源码中，其对应的处理方法是SetCgroupAction类。

bool SetCgroupAction::AddTidToCgroup(int tid, int fd) {
    if (tid <= 0) {
        return true;
    }

    std::string value = std::to_string(tid);

    if (TEMP_FAILURE_RETRY(write(fd, value.c_str(), value.length())) < 0) {
        // If the thread is in the process of exiting, don't flag an error
        if (errno != ESRCH) {
            PLOG(ERROR) << "AddTidToCgroup failed to write '" << value << "'; fd=" << fd;
            return false;
        }
    }

    return true;
}

设置进程的cgroups也是很简单，只要将pid/tid写入到对应的cgroups下的cgroup.procs级可。

SetTimerSlack

setTimerSlack只有一个Slack参数值，这个参数对应了/proc/<pid>/timerslack_ns。TimerSlack是Linux系统为了降低系统功耗，避免timer时间参差不齐，过于的频繁的唤醒cpu，而设置的一种对齐策略。也就是说，这个值是关系到进程的定时器，诸如select、epoll_wait、sleep等API的唤醒时间，具体可参考下面的案例：https://cloud.tencent.com/developer/article/1836285

SetAttribute

SetAttribute则跟task_profiles.json中的Attributes挂钩起来，对应了SetAttributeAction，SetAttribute有两个参数 -- Name是指前面Attributes所定义过的Attribute名字，Value则是往Attribute对应group子节点写入的值。

bool SetAttributeAction::ExecuteForTask(int tid) const {
    std::string path;

    if (!attribute_->GetPathForTask(tid, &path)) {
        LOG(ERROR) << "Failed to find cgroup for tid " << tid;
        return false;
    }

    if (!WriteStringToFile(value_, path)) {
        PLOG(ERROR) << "Failed to write '" << value_ << "' to " << path;
        return false;
    }

    return true;
}

SetClamps

预留的接口，未实现，待内核支持util_clamp。

profiles的设置过程

Start thread

set_sched_policy: #00 pc 00000000000253ec  /system/lib64/libprocessgroup.so (set_sched_policy+92)
set_sched_policy: #00 pc 00000000000253ec  /system/lib64/libprocessgroup.so (set_sched_policy+92)
set_sched_policy: #01 pc 000000000001301c  /system/lib64/libutils.so (thread_data_t::trampoline(thread_data_t const*)+92)
set_sched_policy: #02 pc 00000000000e1100  /system/lib64/bootstrap/libc.so (__pthread_start(void*)+36)
set_sched_policy: #03 pc 0000000000083ab0  /system/lib64/bootstrap/libc.so (__start_thread+64)

android在创建线程时，根据创建线程时设置的priority(默认是ANDROID_PRIORITY_BACKGROUND)来设置processgroup:

int androidCreateRawThreadEtc(android_thread_func_t entryFunction,
                               void *userData,
                               const char* threadName __android_unused,
                               int32_t threadPriority,
                               size_t threadStackSize,
                               android_thread_id_t *threadId)
{
    pthread_attr_t attr;
    pthread_attr_init(&attr);
    pthread_attr_setdetachstate(&attr, PTHREAD_CREATE_DETACHED);

#if defined(__ANDROID__)  /* valgrind is rejecting RT-priority create reqs */
    if (threadPriority != PRIORITY_DEFAULT || threadName != NULL) {
        // Now that the pthread_t has a method to find the associated
        // android_thread_id_t (pid) from pthread_t, it would be possible to avoid
        // this trampoline in some cases as the parent could set the properties
        // for the child.  However, there would be a race condition because the
        // child becomes ready immediately, and it doesn't work for the name.
        // prctl(PR_SET_NAME) only works for self; prctl(PR_SET_THREAD_NAME) was
        // proposed but not yet accepted.
        thread_data_t* t = new thread_data_t;
        t->priority = threadPriority;
        t->threadName = threadName ? strdup(threadName) : NULL;
        t->entryFunction = entryFunction;
        t->userData = userData;
        entryFunction = (android_thread_func_t)&thread_data_t::trampoline;
        userData = t;
    }
#endif
    ……
}
     static int trampoline(const thread_data_t* t) {
        thread_func_t f = t->entryFunction;
        void* u = t->userData;
        int prio = t->priority;
        char * name = t->threadName;
        delete t;
        setpriority(PRIO_PROCESS, 0, prio);
        if (prio >= ANDROID_PRIORITY_BACKGROUND) {
            set_sched_policy(0, SP_BACKGROUND);
        } else {
            set_sched_policy(0, SP_FOREGROUND);
        }

        if (name) {
            androidSetThreadName(name);
            free(name);
        }
        return f(u);
    }

Zygote SpecializeCommon

05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #00 pc 00000000000253ec  /system/lib64/libprocessgroup.so (set_sched_policy+92)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #01 pc 00000000001ae994  /system/lib64/libandroid_runtime.so ((anonymous namespace)::SpecializeCommon(_JNIEnv*, unsigned int, unsigned int, _jintArray*, int, _jobjectArray*, long, long, int, _jstring*, _jstring*, bool, bool, _jstring*, _jstring*)+5728)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #02 pc 00000000001aaec8  /system/lib64/libandroid_runtime.so (android::com_android_internal_os_Zygote_nativeForkAndSpecialize(_JNIEnv*, _jclass*, int, int, _jintArray*, int, _jobjectArray*, int, _jstring*, _jstring*, _jintArray*, _jintArray*, unsigned char, _jstring*, _jstring*)+740)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #03 pc 00000000002c4300  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (art_jni_trampoline+416)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #04 pc 00000000009aa8b8  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (com.android.internal.os.Zygote.forkAndSpecialize+200)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #05 pc 00000000009aeb14  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (com.android.internal.os.ZygoteConnection.processOneCommand+1844)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #06 pc 00000000009b4090  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (com.android.internal.os.ZygoteServer.runSelectLoop+1600)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #07 pc 00000000009b0a14  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (com.android.internal.os.ZygoteInit.main+2884)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #08 pc 00000000001365b8  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art_quick_invoke_static_stub+568)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #09 pc 000000000014508c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::ArtMethod::Invoke(art::Thread*, unsigned int*, unsigned int, art::JValue*, char const*)+276)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #10 pc 00000000004a9b0c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::(anonymous namespace)::InvokeWithArgArray(art::ScopedObjectAccessAlreadyRunnable const&, art::ArtMethod*, art::(anonymous namespace)::ArgArray*, art::JValue*, char const*)+104)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #11 pc 00000000004a9778  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::InvokeWithVarArgs(art::ScopedObjectAccessAlreadyRunnable const&, _jobject*, _jmethodID*, std::__va_list)+408)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #12 pc 00000000003b67f0  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::JNI::CallStaticVoidMethodV(_JNIEnv*, _jclass*, _jmethodID*, std::__va_list)+628)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #13 pc 00000000000bf560  /system/lib64/libandroid_runtime.so (_JNIEnv::CallStaticVoidMethod(_jclass*, _jmethodID*, ...)+116)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #14 pc 00000000000c246c  /system/lib64/libandroid_runtime.so (android::AndroidRuntime::start(char const*, android::Vector<android::String8> const&, bool)+912)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #15 pc 00000000000034e0  /system/bin/app_process64 (main+1168)
05-26 15:26:08.641  3147  3147 D set_sched_policy: #16 pc 000000000007d798  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/bionic/libc.so (__libc_init+108)

zygote在fork一个应用出来时，就会默认设置了应用的profile值。

ThreadPriorityBooster

set_sched_policy: #00 pc 00000000000253ec  /system/lib64/libprocessgroup.so (set_sched_policy+92)
set_sched_policy: #01 pc 000000000001319c  /system/lib64/libutils.so (androidSetThreadPriority+76)
set_sched_policy: #02 pc 000000000014d068  /system/lib64/libandroid_runtime.so (android_os_Process_setThreadPriority(_JNIEnv*, _jobject*, int, int)+32)
set_sched_policy: #03 pc 00000000002ab060  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (art_jni_trampoline+160)
set_sched_policy: #04 pc 00000000012ced1c  /system/framework/oat/arm64/services.odex (com.android.server.ThreadPriorityBooster.boost+188)
set_sched_policy: #05 pc 00000000015e65e0  /system/framework/oat/arm64/services.odex (com.android.server.am.ActivityManagerService.boostPriorityForLockedSection+64)
set_sched_policy: #06 pc 0000000001612478  /system/framework/oat/arm64/services.odex (com.android.server.am.ActivityManagerService.registerReceiver+184)
set_sched_policy: #07 pc 00000000004deb64  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.app.ContextImpl.registerReceiverInternal+660)
set_sched_policy: #08 pc 00000000004e4aa0  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.app.ContextImpl.registerReceiver+128)
set_sched_policy: #09 pc 00000000004e49ec  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.app.ContextImpl.registerReceiver+60)
set_sched_policy: #10 pc 000000000004ad08  /system/priv-app/SettingsProvider/oat/arm64/SettingsProvider.odex (com.android.providers.settings.SettingsProvider.registerBroadcastReceivers+232)
set_sched_policy: #11 pc 000000000004e95c  /system/priv-app/SettingsProvider/oat/arm64/SettingsProvider.odex (com.android.providers.settings.SettingsProvider.lambda$onCreate$0$SettingsProvider+44)
set_sched_policy: #12 pc 00000000000170e4  /system/priv-app/SettingsProvider/oat/arm64/SettingsProvider.odex (com.android.providers.settings.-$$Lambda$SettingsProvider$h_zJ8TmggsGxbxfR60fhjb7Ynw4.run+52)
set_sched_policy: #13 pc 000000000073237c  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.os.Handler.dispatchMessage+76)
set_sched_policy: #14 pc 0000000000735990  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.os.Looper.loop+1440)
set_sched_policy: #15 pc 00000000007343d0  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.os.HandlerThread.run+544)
set_sched_policy: #16 pc 0000000000136334  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art_quick_invoke_stub+548)
set_sched_policy: #17 pc 000000000014506c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::ArtMethod::Invoke(art::Thread*, unsigned int*, unsigned int, art::JValue*, char const*)+244)
set_sched_policy: #18 pc 00000000004a9b0c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::(anonymous namespace)::InvokeWithArgArray(art::ScopedObjectAccessAlreadyRunnable const&, art::ArtMethod*, art::(anonymous namespace)::ArgArray*, art::JValue*, char const*)+104)
set_sched_policy: #19 pc 00000000004aaba0  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::InvokeVirtualOrInterfaceWithJValues(art::ScopedObjectAccessAlreadyRunnable const&, _jobject*, _jmethodID*, jvalue const*)+416)
set_sched_policy: #20 pc 00000000004ea93c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::Thread::CreateCallback(void*)+1176)
set_sched_policy: #21 pc 00000000000e1100  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/bionic/libc.so (__pthread_start(void*)+36)
set_sched_policy: #22 pc 0000000000083ab0  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/bionic/libc.so (__start_thread+64)

根据堆栈对照源码来看，实际上我们是看不到相关的调用的，而是通过ASM插桩的方式加入到字节码中的，可参考：https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/348548041

通过反编译services.core.ja(out/soong/.intermediates/frameworks/base/services/core/services.core/android_common/combined/services.core.jar)，可以看到插桩后的代码如下：

    public Intent registerReceiver(final IApplicationThread caller, String callerPackage, final IIntentReceiver receiver, final IntentFilter filter, final String permission, int userId, final int flags) {
        this.enforceNotIsolatedCaller("registerReceiver");
        ArrayList<Intent> stickyIntents = null;
        ProcessRecord callerApp = null;
        final boolean visibleToInstantApps = (flags & 0x1) != 0x0;
        // monitorenter(this)
        int callingUid;
        int callingPid;
        boolean instantApp;
        try {
            boostPriorityForLockedSection();
                        ……
        }
        finally {
            // monitorexit(this)
            resetPriorityAfterLockedSection();
        }
    }

在所有synchronized(ActivityManagerService.this)的调用前后均使用try-finally包裹，并在执行前调用boostPriorityForLockedSection，执行后调用resetPriorityAfterLockedSection。

applyOomAdjLocked

set_sched_policy: #00 pc 00000000000253ec  /system/lib64/libprocessgroup.so (set_sched_policy+92)
set_sched_policy: #01 pc 000000000001301c  /system/lib64/libutils.so (thread_data_t::trampoline(thread_data_t const*)+92)
set_sched_policy: #02 pc 00000000000e1100  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/bionic/libc.so (__pthread_start(void*)+36)
set_sched_policy: #03 pc 0000000000083ab0  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/bionic/libc.so (__start_thread+64)
set_sched_policy: #00 pc 00000000000253ec  /system/lib64/libprocessgroup.so (set_sched_policy+92)
set_sched_policy: #01 pc 000000000014c4b4  /system/lib64/libandroid_runtime.so (android_os_Process_setProcessGroup(_JNIEnv*, _jobject*, int, int)+328)
set_sched_policy: #02 pc 00000000002ab060  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (art_jni_trampoline+160)
set_sched_policy: #03 pc 00000000006bb4e4  /system/framework/oat/arm64/services.odex (com.android.server.am.OomAdjuster.lambda$new$0+116)
set_sched_policy: #04 pc 000000000067d554  /system/framework/oat/arm64/services.odex (com.android.server.am.-$$Lambda$OomAdjuster$OVkqAAacT5-taN3pgDzyZj3Ymvk.handleMessage+52)
set_sched_policy: #05 pc 00000000007323b8  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.os.Handler.dispatchMessage+136)
set_sched_policy: #06 pc 0000000000735990  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.os.Looper.loop+1440)
set_sched_policy: #07 pc 00000000007343d0  /system/framework/arm64/boot-framework.oat (android.os.HandlerThread.run+544)
set_sched_policy: #08 pc 00000000012ad6e4  /system/framework/oat/arm64/services.odex (com.android.server.ServiceThread.run+100)
set_sched_policy: #09 pc 0000000000136334  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art_quick_invoke_stub+548)
set_sched_policy: #10 pc 000000000014506c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::ArtMethod::Invoke(art::Thread*, unsigned int*, unsigned int, art::JValue*, char const*)+244)
set_sched_policy: #11 pc 00000000004a9b0c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::(anonymous namespace)::InvokeWithArgArray(art::ScopedObjectAccessAlreadyRunnable const&, art::ArtMethod*, art::(anonymous namespace)::ArgArray*, art::JValue*, char const*)+104)
set_sched_policy: #12 pc 00000000004aaba0  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::InvokeVirtualOrInterfaceWithJValues(art::ScopedObjectAccessAlreadyRunnable const&, _jobject*, _jmethodID*, jvalue const*)+416)
set_sched_policy: #13 pc 00000000004ea93c  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/libart.so (art::Thread::CreateCallback(void*)+1176)
set_sched_policy: #14 pc 00000000000e1100  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/bionic/libc.so (__pthread_start(void*)+36)
set_sched_policy: #15 pc 0000000000083ab0  /apex/com.android.runtime/lib64/bionic/libc.so (__start_thread+64)

AMS对于应用状态发生变化时，会触发OomAdj的值的修改，在此过程中，还会修改process的SchedulingGroup。

新增一组profile

针对一些场景，例如我们不想让某类进程(java层的应用)消耗过多的CPU资源，那么可以在cpuset上再创建一个子group，限制

1.为cgroups的子系统创建一个子节点，在cpuset下创建一个test的子group：

on init
    mkdir /dev/cpuset/test
    copy /dev/cpuset/cpus /dev/cpuset/test/cpus
    copy /dev/cpuset/mems /dev/cpuset/test/mems
    chown system system /dev/cpuset/test
    chown system system /dev/cpuset/test/tasks
    chmod 0664 /dev/cpuset/test/tasks

2.修改task_profiles.json，增加一个profile类型：

    {
      "Name": "TestCapacity",
      "Actions": [
        {
          "Name": "JoinCgroup",
          "Params":
          {
            "Controller": "cpuset",
            "Path": "test"
          }
        }
      ]
    },

3.libprocessgroup中增加对新增profile的处理：

// system/core/libprocessgroup/include/processgroup/sched_policy.h
typedef enum {
    SP_DEFAULT = -1,
    SP_BACKGROUND = 0,
    SP_FOREGROUND = 1,
    SP_SYSTEM = 2,  // can't be used with set_sched_policy()
    SP_AUDIO_APP = 3,
    SP_AUDIO_SYS = 4,
    SP_TOP_APP = 5,
    SP_RT_APP = 6,
    SP_RESTRICTED = 7,
    SP_TEST = 8,
    SP_CNT,
    SP_MAX = SP_CNT - 1,
    SP_SYSTEM_DEFAULT = SP_FOREGROUND,
} SchedPolicy;
// system/core/libprocessgroup/sched_policy.cpp
int set_cpuset_policy(int tid, SchedPolicy policy) {
    if (tid == 0) {
        tid = GetThreadId();
    }
    policy = _policy(policy);

    switch (policy) {
        case SP_BACKGROUND:
            return SetTaskProfiles(tid,
                                   {"HighEnergySaving", "ProcessCapacityLow", "LowIoPriority",
                                    "TimerSlackHigh"},
                                   true)
                           ? 0
                           : -1;
        case SP_FOREGROUND:
        case SP_AUDIO_APP:
        case SP_AUDIO_SYS:
            return SetTaskProfiles(tid,
                                   {"HighPerformance", "ProcessCapacityHigh", "HighIoPriority",
                                    "TimerSlackNormal"},
                                   true)
                           ? 0
                           : -1;
        case SP_TOP_APP:
            return SetTaskProfiles(tid,
                                   {"MaxPerformance", "ProcessCapacityMax", "MaxIoPriority",
                                    "TimerSlackNormal"},
                                   true)
                           ? 0
                           : -1;
        case SP_SYSTEM:
            return SetTaskProfiles(tid, {"ServiceCapacityLow", "TimerSlackNormal"}, true) ? 0 : -1;
        case SP_RESTRICTED:
            return SetTaskProfiles(tid, {"ServiceCapacityRestricted", "TimerSlackNormal"}, true)
                           ? 0
                           : -1;
        case SP_STEST:
            return SetTaskProfiles(tid, {"HighEnergySaving", "TestCapacity", "TimerSlackNormal"}, true) ? 0 : -1;
        default:
            break;
    }

    return 0;
}

4.修改AMS设置sched group的地方：

// frameworks/base/core/java/android/os/Process.java
    public static final int THREAD_GROUP_TEST = 8;
// frameworks/base/services/core/java/com/android/server/am/ProcessList.java 
    static final int SCHED_GROUP_TEST_APP = 5;
// frameworks/base/services/core/java/com/android/server/am/ProcessRecord.java
    void setCurrentSchedulingGroup(int curSchedGroup) {
        if (mTestApp && curSchedGroup < ProcessList.SCHED_GROUP_TOP_APP)
            curSchedGroup = ProcessList.SCHED_GROUP_TEST_APP;
        mCurSchedGroup = curSchedGroup;
        mWindowProcessController.setCurrentSchedulingGroup(curSchedGroup);
    }
// frameworks/base/services/core/java/com/android/server/am/OomAdjuster.java
    private final boolean applyOomAdjLocked(ProcessRecord app, boolean doingAll, long now,
            long nowElapsed) {
        final int curSchedGroup = app.getCurrentSchedulingGroup();
                int processGroup;
                switch (curSchedGroup) {
                    case ProcessList.SCHED_GROUP_BACKGROUND:
                        processGroup = THREAD_GROUP_BG_NONINTERACTIVE;
                        break;
                    case ProcessList.SCHED_GROUP_TOP_APP:
                    case ProcessList.SCHED_GROUP_TOP_APP_BOUND:
                        processGroup = THREAD_GROUP_TOP_APP;
                        break;
                    case ProcessList.SCHED_GROUP_RESTRICTED:
                        processGroup = THREAD_GROUP_RESTRICTED;
                        break;
                    case ProcessList.SCHED_GROUP_TEST_APP:
                        processGroup = THREAD_GROUP_TEST;
                        break;
                    default:
                        processGroup = THREAD_GROUP_DEFAULT;
                        break;
                }
                mProcessGroupHandler.sendMessage(mProcessGroupHandler.obtainMessage(
                        0 /* unused */, app.pid, processGroup));
    }