Lesson: Implementations
Implementations are the data objects used to store collections, which implement the interfaces described inthe Interfaces section. This lesson describes the following kinds of implementations:
- General-purpose implementations are the most commonly used implementations, designed for everyday use. They are summarized in the table titled General-purpose-implementations.
- Special-purpose implementations are designed for use in special situations and display nonstandard performance characteristics, usage restrictions, or behavior.
- Concurrent implementations are designed to support high concurrency, typically at the expense of single-threaded performance. These implementations are part of the
java.util.concurrentpackage. - Wrapper implementations are used in combination with other types of implementations, often the general-purpose ones, to provide added or restricted functionality.
- Convenience implementations are mini-implementations, typically made available via static factory methods, that provide convenient, efficient alternatives to general-purpose implementations for special collections (for example, singleton sets).
- Abstract implementations are skeletal implementations that facilitate the construction of custom implementations — described later in theCustom Collection Implementations section. An advanced topic, it's not particularly difficult, but relatively few people will need to do it.
The general-purpose implementations are summarized in the following table.
| Interfaces | Hash table Implementations | Resizable array Implementations | Tree Implementations | Linked list Implementations | Hash table + Linked list Implementations |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Set | HashSet | TreeSet | LinkedHashSet | ||
List | ArrayList | LinkedList | |||
Queue | |||||
Deque | ArrayDeque | LinkedList | |||
Map | HashMap | TreeMap | LinkedHashMap |
As you can see from the table, the Java Collections Framework provides several general-purpose implementations of theSet,List , and Map interfaces. In each case, one implementation —HashSet,ArrayList, and HashMap — is clearly the one to use for most applications, all other things being equal. Note that theSortedSet and the SortedMap interfaces do not have rows in the table. Each of those interfaces has one implementation(TreeSet and TreeMap) and is listed in the Set and the Map rows. There are two general-purposeQueue implementations —LinkedList, which is also a List implementation, andPriorityQueue, which is omitted from the table. These two implementations provide very different semantics:LinkedList provides FIFO semantics, whilePriorityQueue orders its elements according to their values.
Each of the general-purpose implementations provides all optional operations contained in its interface. All permitnull elements, keys, and values. None are synchronized (thread-safe). All havefail-fast iterators, which detect illegal concurrent modification during iteration and fail quickly and cleanly rather than risking arbitrary, nondeterministic behavior at an undetermined time in the future.All are Serializable and all support a publicclone method.
The fact that these implementations are unsynchronized represents a break with the past: The legacy collectionsVector andHashtable are synchronized. The present approach was taken because collections are frequently used when the synchronization is of no benefit. Such uses include single-threaded use, read-only use, and use as part of a larger data object that does its own synchronization. In general, it is good API design practice not to make users pay for a feature they don't use. Furthermore, unnecessary synchronization can result in deadlock under certain circumstances.
If you need thread-safe collections, the synchronization wrappers, described in theWrapper Implementations section, allow any collection to be transformed into a synchronized collection. Thus, synchronization is optional for general-purpose implementations, whereas it is mandatory for legacy implementations. Moreover, thejava.util.concurrent package provides concurrent implementations of theBlockingQueue interface, which extendsQueue, and of theConcurrentMap interface, which extendsMap. These implementations offer much higher concurrency than mere synchronized implementations.
As a rule, you should be thinking about the interfaces, not the implementations. That is why there are no programming examples in this section. For the most part, the choice of implementation affects only performance. The preferred style, as mentioned in the Interfaces section, is to choose an implementation when a Collection is created and to immediately assign the new collection to a variable of the corresponding interface type (or to pass the collection to a method expecting an argument of the interface type). In this way, the program does not become dependent on any added methods in a given implementation, leaving the programmer free to change implementations anytime that it is warranted by performance concerns or behavioral details.
The sections that follow briefly discuss the implementations. The performance of the implementations is described using words such asconstant-time,log, linear, n log(n), and quadratic to refer to the asymptotic upper-bound on the time complexity of performing the operation. All this is quite a mouthful, and it doesn't matter much if you don't know what it means. If you're interested in knowing more, refer to any good algorithms textbook. One thing to keep in mind is that this sort of performance metric has its limitations. Sometimes, the nominally slower implementation may be faster. When in doubt, measure the performance!
Set Implementations
The Set implementations are grouped into general-purpose and special-purpose implementations.
General-Purpose Set Implementations
There are three general-purpose Set implementations — HashSet, TreeSet, and LinkedHashSet. Which of these three to use is generally straightforward.HashSet is much faster thanTreeSet (constant-time versus log-time for most operations) but offers no ordering guarantees. If you need to use the operations in theSortedSet interface, or if value-ordered iteration is required, useTreeSet; otherwise, use HashSet. It's a fair bet that you'll end up usingHashSet most of the time.
LinkedHashSet is in some sense intermediate between HashSet andTreeSet. Implemented as a hash table with a linked list running through it, it providesinsertion-ordered iteration (least recently inserted to most recently) and runs nearly as fast asHashSet. The LinkedHashSet implementation spares its clients from the unspecified, generally chaotic ordering provided byHashSet without incurring the increased cost associated with TreeSet.
One thing worth keeping in mind about HashSet is that iteration is linear in the sum of the number of entries and the number of buckets (thecapacity). Thus, choosing an initial capacity that's too high can waste both space and time. On the other hand, choosing an initial capacity that's too low wastes time by copying the data structure each time it's forced to increase its capacity. If you don't specify an initial capacity, the default is 16. In the past, there was some advantage to choosing a prime number as the initial capacity. This is no longer true.Internally, the capacity is always rounded up to a power of two. The initial capacity is specified by using theint constructor. The following line of code allocates a HashSet whose initial capacity is 64.
Set<String> s = new HashSet<String>(64); The HashSet class has one other tuning parameter called the load factor. If you care a lot about the space consumption of your HashSet, read theHashSet documentation for more information. Otherwise, just accept the default; it's almost always the right thing to do.
If you accept the default load factor but want to specify an initial capacity, pick a number that's about twice the size to which you expect the set to grow. If your guess is way off, you may waste a bit of space, time, or both, but it's unlikely to be a big problem.
LinkedHashSet has the same tuning parameters as HashSet, but iteration time is not affected by capacity.TreeSet has no tuning parameters.
Special-Purpose Set Implementations
There are two special-purpose Set implementations — EnumSet and CopyOnWriteArraySet.
EnumSet is a high-performance Set implementation for enum types. All of the members of an enum set must be of the same enum type. Internally, it is represented by a bit-vector, typically a single long. Enum sets support iteration over ranges of enum types. For example, given the enum declaration for the days of the week, you can iterate over the weekdays. TheEnumSet class provides a static factory that makes it easy.
for (Day d : EnumSet.range(Day.MONDAY, Day.FRIDAY))
System.out.println(d);EnumSet.of(Style.BOLD, Style.ITALIC) CopyOnWriteArraySet is a
Set implementation backed up by a copy-on-write array. All mutative operations, such as
add,
set, and
remove, are implemented by making a new copy of the array; no locking is ever required. Even iteration may safely proceed concurrently with element insertion and deletion. Unlike most
Set implementations, the
add,
remove, and
contains methods require time proportional to the size of the set.
This implementation is only appropriate for sets that are rarely modified but frequently iterated. It is well suited to maintaining event-handler lists that must prevent duplicates.
List Implementations
List implementations are grouped into general-purpose and special-purpose implementations.
General-Purpose List Implementations
There are two general-purpose List implementations — ArrayList and LinkedList. Most of the time, you'll probably useArrayList, which offers constant-time positional access and is just plain fast. It does not have to allocate a node object for each element in theList, and it can take advantage of System.arraycopy when it has to move multiple elements at the same time. Think ofArrayList asVector without the synchronization overhead.
If you frequently add elements to the beginning of theList or iterate over theList to delete elements from its interior, you should consider usingLinkedList. These operations require constant-time in aLinkedList and linear-time in anArrayList. But you pay a big price in performance. Positional access requires linear-time in aLinkedList and constant-time in anArrayList. Furthermore, the constant factor forLinkedList is much worse. If you think you want to use aLinkedList, measure the performance of your application with bothLinkedList andArrayList before making your choice; ArrayList is usually faster.
ArrayList has one tuning parameter — the initial capacity, which refers to the number of elements theArrayList can hold before it has to grow.LinkedList has no tuning parameters and seven optional operations, one of which isclone. The other six areaddFirst, getFirst,removeFirst, addLast,getLast, and removeLast.LinkedList also implements theQueue interface.
Special-Purpose List Implementations
CopyOnWriteArrayList is a List implementation backed up by a copy-on-write array. This implementation is similar in nature toCopyOnWriteArraySet.No synchronization is necessary, even during iteration, and iterators are guaranteed never to throwConcurrentModificationException. This implementation is well suited to maintaining event-handler lists, in which change is infrequent, and traversal is frequent and potentially time-consuming.
If you need synchronization, a Vector will be slightly faster than anArrayList synchronized withCollections.synchronizedList. ButVector has loads of legacy operations, so be careful to always manipulate theVector with theList interface or else you won't be able to replace the implementation at a later time.
If your List is fixed in size — that is, you'll never use remove, add, or any of the bulk operations other than containsAll — you have a third option that's definitely worth considering. SeeArrays.asList in theConvenience Implementations section for more information.
Map Implementations
Map implementations are grouped into general-purpose, special-purpose, and concurrent implementations.
General-Purpose Map Implementations
The three general-purpose Map implementations are HashMap, TreeMap and LinkedHashMap. If you need SortedMap operations or key-orderedCollection-view iteration, useTreeMap; if you want maximum speed and don't care about iteration order, useHashMap; if you want near-HashMap performance and insertion-order iteration, useLinkedHashMap. In this respect, the situation forMap is analogous toSet. Likewise, everything else in theSet Implementations section also applies to Map implementations.
LinkedHashMap provides two capabilities that are not available withLinkedHashSet. When you create aLinkedHashMap, you can order it based on key access rather than insertion. In other words, merely looking up the value associated with a key brings that key to the end of the map. Also,LinkedHashMap provides the removeEldestEntry method, which may be overridden to impose a policy for removing stale mappings automatically when new mappings are added to the map. This makes it very easy to implement a custom cache.
For example, this override will allow the map to grow up to as many as 100 entries and then it will delete the eldest entry each time a new entry is added, maintaining a steady state of 100 entries.
private static final int MAX_ENTRIES = 100;
protected boolean removeEldestEntry(Map.Entry eldest) {
return size() > MAX_ENTRIES;
}Special-Purpose Map Implementations
There are three special-purpose Map implementations — EnumMap, WeakHashMap and IdentityHashMap. EnumMap, which is internally implemented as anarray, is a high-performanceMap implementation for use with enum keys. This implementation combines the richness and safety of theMap interface with a speed approaching that of an array.If you want to map an enum to a value, you should always use anEnumMap in preference to an array.
WeakHashMap is an implementation of the Map interface that stores only weak references to its keys. Storing only weak references allows a key-value pair to be garbage-collected when its key is no longer referenced outside of the WeakHashMap. This class provides the easiest way to harness the power of weak references.It is useful for implementing "registry-like" data structures, where the utility of an entry vanishes when its key is no longer reachable by any thread.
IdentityHashMap is an identity-based Map implementation based on a hash table.This class is useful for topology-preserving object graph transformations, such as serialization or deep-copying. To perform such transformations, you need to maintain an identity-based "node table" that keeps track of which objects have already been seen.Identity-based maps are also used to maintain object-to-meta-information mappings in dynamic debuggers and similar systems. Finally, identity-based maps are useful in thwarting "spoof attacks" that are a result of intentionally perverse equals methods because IdentityHashMap never invokes theequals method on its keys. An added benefit of this implementation is that it is fast.
Concurrent Map Implementations
The java.util.concurrent package contains the ConcurrentMap interface, which extends Map with atomicputIfAbsent,remove, and replace methods, and theConcurrentHashMap implementation of that interface.
ConcurrentHashMap is a highly concurrent, high-performance implementation backed up by a hash table.This implementation never blocks when performing retrievals and allows the client to select the concurrency level for updates. It is intended as a drop-in replacement forHashtable: in addition to implementingConcurrentMap, it supports all the legacy methods peculiar toHashtable. Again, if you don't need the legacy operations, be careful to manipulate it with theConcurrentMap interface.
Queue Implementations
The Queue implementations are grouped into general-purpose and concurrent implementations.
General-Purpose Queue Implementations
As mentioned in the previous section, LinkedList implements theQueue interface, providing first in, first out (FIFO) queue operations foradd,poll, and so on.
The PriorityQueue class is a priority queue based on the heap data structure.This queue orders elements according to the order specified at construction time, which can be the elements' natural ordering or the ordering imposed by an explicitComparator.
The queue retrieval operations — poll, remove, peek, and element — access the element at the head of the queue. Thehead of the queue is the least element with respect to the specified ordering. If multiple elements are tied for least value, the head is one of those elements; ties are broken arbitrarily.
PriorityQueue and its iterator implement all of the optional methods of theCollection andIterator interfaces. The iterator provided in methoditerator is not guaranteed to traverse the elements of thePriorityQueue in any particular order. For ordered traversal, consider usingArrays.sort(pq.toArray()).
Concurrent Queue Implementations
The java.util.concurrent package contains a set of synchronizedQueue interfaces and classes.BlockingQueue extends Queue with operations that wait for the queue to become nonempty when retrieving an element and for space to become available in the queue when storing an element. This interface is implemented by the following classes:
LinkedBlockingQueue— an optionally bounded FIFO blocking queue backed by linked nodesArrayBlockingQueue— a bounded FIFO blocking queue backed by an arrayPriorityBlockingQueue— an unbounded blocking priority queue backed by a heapDelayQueue— a time-based scheduling queue backed by a heapSynchronousQueue— a simple rendezvous mechanism that uses theBlockingQueueinterface
In JDK 7, TransferQueue is a specialized BlockingQueue in which code that adds an element to the queue has the option of waiting (blocking) for code in another thread to retrieve the element.TransferQueue has a single implementation:
LinkedTransferQueue— an unboundedTransferQueuebased on linked nodes
Deque Implementations
The Deque interface, pronounced as "deck", represents a double-ended queue. TheDeque interface can be implemented as various types ofCollections. TheDeque interface implementations are grouped into general-purpose and concurrent implementations.
General-Purpose Deque Implementations
The general-purpose implementations include LinkedList and ArrayDeque classes. The Deque interface supports insertion, removal and retrieval of elements at both ends. TheArrayDeque class is the resizable array implementation of the Deque interface, whereas theLinkedList class is the list implementation.
The basic insertion, removal and retieval operations in the Deque interfaceaddFirst,addLast, removeFirst, removeLast,getFirst andgetLast. The method addFirst adds an element at the head whereasaddLast adds an element at the tail of theDeque instance.
The LinkedList implementation is more flexible than the ArrayDeque implementation. LinkedList implements all optional list operations.null elements are allowed in theLinkedList implementation but not in theArrayDeque implementation.
In terms of efficiency, ArrayDeque is more efficient than theLinkedList for add and remove operation at both ends. The best operation in aLinkedList implementation is removing the current element during the iteration.LinkedList implementations are not ideal structures to iterate.
The LinkedList implementation consumes more memory than the ArrayDeque implementation. For the ArrayDeque instance traversal use any of the following:
foreach
The foreach is fast and can be used for all kinds of lists.
ArrayDeque<String> aDeque = new ArrayDeque<String>();
. . .
for (String str : aDeque) {
System.out.println(str);
}Iterator
The Iterator can be used for the forward traversal on all kinds of lists for all kinds of data.
ArrayDeque<String> aDeque = new ArrayDeque<String>();
. . .
for (Iterator<String> iter = aDeque.iterator(); iter.hasNext(); ) {
System.out.println(iter.next());
} The ArrayDeque class is used in this tutorial to implement theDeque interface. The complete code of the example used in this tutorial is available inArrayDequeSampleLinkedList and ArrayDeque classes do not support concurrent access by multiple threads.
Concurrent Deque Implementations
The LinkedBlockingDeque class is the concurrent implementation of theDeque interface. If the deque is empty then methods such astakeFirst andtakeLast wait until the element becomes available, and then retrieves and removes the same element.
Original: http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/collections/implementations/index.html
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