数理逻辑
chapter 2 Logic
2.1 Propositions(命题) and logical operations
part 1 propositions
- a statement or proposition is a declarative sentence(陈述句) that is either true or false, but not both.
special example:
the temperature on the surface of the planet venus is 900.F
the sun will come out tomorrow.they are propositions.
part 2 logical connectives and compound(复合) statement.
- in logic , the letters p,q,r …denote propositional variables:that is , variable that can be replaced with statements,statements or propositional variables can be combined by logical connectives to obtain compound statements, .
- and :tthe truth value of a compound statements depends only on the truth values of the statements being combined and on the types of connectives being used.
negation:
- the negation of p is the statement not p , denoted by ~p .
- it follows that if p is true, then ~p is flase, if p is false , then ~p is true.
- truth table:table giving the truth values of a compound statement in terms of its compound parts , is called truth table.
- note:
not is not a connective , sice it doesn’t join two statements.
~p is not a compound statement.
however , ~ is a unary operation for the collection of statements and ~p is a statement if p is.
conjunction
- definition:if p and q are statements , the conjunction of p and q is the compound statement “p and q , denoted as the p ∧ q”.
- and is a binary operation on the set of statements , the compound statement p ∧ q is true when both p and q are true, otherwise it is false.
- we may join two totally unreleated statements by the connective and.
disjunction
- definition:if p and q are statements , the disjunction of p and q is the compound statement “p or q”, denoted by p ∨ q.
- the compound statement is true if p or q is true, it is false when both p and q are false.
truth table
constructed:
1. step1:the first n columns of the table are lableed by the component propositional variables , further columns are included for all intermediate combinations of the variables,culmuinating in a column for the full statement.
2. under each of the first headings , we list the 2n possible n-tuples of truth values for the n compound statements.
3.for each of the remaining columns, we compute , in sequence, the remaining truth values.
qualifiers
- an element of {x|P(x)} is an object t for which the statement P(t) is true,such a statement P(x) is called a predicate,P(x) is also called a propositional function , because each choice of x produce a proposition P(x) thatt is eitherr true or flase, another use of predicates is in programming, like if(P(x)) , the predicates P(x) are called the guards for the block of programming code, often the guard for a block is a conjunction or disjunction.
- the universal quantification of a predicate ∀ ,means that for all values of x P(x) is true.denoted by ∀ x P(x)
- the existial quantification:their exist a value of x for which P(x) is true,denoted by ∃ .
2.2Conditional Statements
- if p and q are statements , the compound statement “if p then q”, denoted p⇒q , is called a conditional statement , or implication(蕴含)。
- the statement p is called the antecedent(前件) or hypothesis(前提)。and the statement q is called the consequent or conclusion.
- the connective if…then is denoted by the symbol ⇒
- p⇒q the converse q⇒p and the contrapositive q⇒ p
equivalence or biconditional
- if p and q are statements , the compound statement p if and only if q , denoted by p⇔q