INT201-Decision, Computation and Language(1)

1. DFA

DFA is a finite-state machine that accepts or rejects a given string of symbols, by running through a state sequence uniquely determined by the string.

A DFA is defined as a 5-tuple:$$M=(Q,\Sigma ,\delta ,q,F)$$

1. $Q$ is a finite set of states.
2. $\Sigma$ is a finite set of symbols, called the alphabet of the automaton.
3. $\delta :Q\times \Sigma \to Q$ is a function, called the transition function.
4. $q\in Q$ is called the initial state.
5. $F\subseteq Q$ is a set of accepting / terminal states.

We can extend the definition of the transition function $\delta$ so that it tells us which state we reach after a word ${\Sigma }^{\ast }$ (not just a single letter) has been scanned:
extend the map $\delta :Q\times \Sigma \to Q$ to ${\delta }^{\ast }:Q\times {\Sigma }^{\ast }\to Q$ by defining:
$$\begin{array}{rl}{\delta }^{\ast }(q,ϵ)=q& \text{for all }q\in Q\\ {\delta }^{\ast }(q,wa)=\delta ({\delta }^{\ast }(q,w),a)& \text{for all }q\in Q,w\in {\Sigma }^{\ast },a\in \Sigma \\ {\delta }^{\ast }(q,vw)={\delta }^{\ast }({\delta }^{\ast }(q,v),w)& \text{for all }q\in Q,v,w\in {\Sigma }^{\ast }\end{array}$$

1.1 Language defined by DFA

Suppose we have a DFA $M$, A word $w\in {\Sigma }^{\ast }$ is said to be accepted or recognized by $M$ if ${\delta }^{\ast }(q_0,w)\in F$, otherwise it is said to be rejected. The set of all words accepted by $M$ is called the language accepted by $M$ and will be denoted by $L(M)$.
L ( M ) = { w ∈ Σ ∗ : δ ∗ ( q 0 , w ) ∈ F } L(M)=\{w\in\Sigma^*:\delta^*(q_0,w)\in F\} L(M)={w∈Σ∗:δ∗(q0​,w)∈F}
Any finite language is accepted by some DFA

1.2 Regular operations on languages

A language $A$ is called regular, if there exists a finite automaton $M$ such that $A=L(M)$

Let $A$ and $B$ be two languages over the same alphabet.
The union of $A$ and $B$ is defined as: A ∪ B = { w : w ∈ A  or  w ∈ B } A\cup B=\{w:w\in A\text{ or }w\in B\} A∪B={w:w∈A or w∈B}The concatenation: A B = { w w ′ : w ∈ A  and  w ′ ∈ B } AB=\{ww^\prime:w\in A\text{ and }w^\prime\in B\} AB={ww′:w∈A and w′∈B}The Kleene star of $A$ is defined as:$$A^{\ast }=\bigcup _{i\in N}{A}_i=A_0\cup A_1\cup A_2\cdots$$where A 0 = { ϵ } A 1 = A A i + 1 = { w v : w ∈ A i , v ∈ A } \begin{aligned}A_0&=\{\epsilon\}\\A_1&=A\\A_{i+1}&=\{wv:w\in A_i,v\in A\}\end{aligned} A0​A1​Ai+1​​={ϵ}=A={wv:w∈Ai​,v∈A}​

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2. NFA

A finite automata is deterministic, if the next state the machine goes to on any given symbol is uniquely determined.

DFA has exactly one transition leaving each state for each symbol.

A finite automata is nondeterministic, if the machine allows for several or no choices to exist for the next state on a given symbol. For a state $q$ and symbol $s\in \Sigma$, NFA can have:

• Multiple edges leaving $q$ labelled with the same symbol $s$
• No edge leaving $q$ labelled with symbol $s$
• Edge leaving $q$ labelled with $ϵ$ (without reading any symbol)

The machine splits into multiple copies of itself (threads):

• Each copy proceeds with computation independently of others
• NFA may be in a set of states, instead of a single state.
• NFA follows all possible computation paths in parallel.
• If a copy is in a state and next input symbol doesn’t appear on any outgoing edge from the state, then the copy dies or crashes.
• NFA accepts the input string, if any copy ends in an accept state after reading the entire string.

For any alphabet $\Sigma$, we define Σ ϵ = Σ ∪ { ϵ } \Sigma_\epsilon=\Sigma\cup\{\epsilon\} Σϵ​=Σ∪{ϵ}
NFA is a 5-tuple $M=(Q,\Sigma ,\delta ,q,F)$

1. $Q$ is a finite set of states
2. $\Sigma$ is a finite set of symbols, called the alphabet of the automaton
3. $\delta :Q\times {\Sigma }_{ϵ}\to P(Q)$ is a function, called the transition function
4. $q\in Q$ is called the initial / start state
5. $F\subseteq Q$ is a set of accepting / terminal states

Let $M=(Q,\Sigma ,\delta ,q,F)$ be an NFA, and let $w\in {\Sigma }^{\ast }$. We say that $M$ accepts $w$, if ${\delta }^{\ast }(q_0,w)\in F$

Extend the map $\delta$ to a map $Q\times {\Sigma }^{\ast }\to P(Q)$ by defining: δ ( q , ϵ ) = { q }      for all  q ∈ Q δ ( q , w a ) = ⋃ p ∈ δ ( q , w ) δ ( p , a )      for all  q ∈ Q , w ∈ Σ ∗ , a ∈ Σ \begin{aligned}\delta(q,\epsilon)=\{q\}~~~~&\text{for all }q\in Q\\\delta(q,wa)=\bigcup\limits_{p\in\delta(q,w)}\delta(p,a)~~~~&\text{for all }q\in Q,w\in\Sigma^*,a\in\Sigma\end{aligned} δ(q,ϵ)={q}    δ(q,wa)=p∈δ(q,w)⋃​δ(p,a)    ​for all q∈Qfor all q∈Q,w∈Σ∗,a∈Σ​

Suppose, in a DFA, we can get from state $p$ to state $q$ via transitions labelled by letters of a word $w$. Then we say that the states $p$ and $q$ are connected by a path with label $w$.

In a NFA, if δ ( p , a ) = { q , r } \delta(p,a)=\{q,r\} δ(p,a)={q,r} we could write: { p } ⟶ a { q , r } \{p\}\stackrel{a}{\longrightarrow}\{q,r\} {p}⟶a​{q,r}

2.1 Language accepted by NFA

Let $M=(Q,\Sigma ,\delta ,a,F)$ be an NFA. The language $L(M)$ accepted by $M$ is defined as L ( M ) = { w ∈ Σ ∗ : M  accepts  w } L(M)=\{w\in\Sigma^*:M\text{ accepts } w\} L(M)={w∈Σ∗:M accepts w}

2.2 Equivalence of DFAs and NFAs

Two machines are equivalent if they recognize the same language.

DFA is a restricted form of NFA:

• Every NFA has an equivalent DFA
• We can convert an arbitrary NFA to a DFA that accepts the same language
• DFA has the same power as NFA

2.3 DFA to NFA

The formal conversion of a DFA to an NFA is done as follows: Let $M=(Q,\Sigma ,\delta ,q,F)$ be a DFA. $\delta$ is a function $\delta :Q\times \Sigma \to Q$. We define the function ${\delta }^{\prime }:Q\times {\Sigma }_{ϵ}\to P(Q)$. For any $r\in Q$ and for any $a\in {\Sigma }_{ϵ}$: δ ′ ( r , a ) = { { δ ( r , a ) } if  a ≠ ϵ ϕ if  a = ϵ \delta^\prime(r,a)=\begin{cases}\{\delta(r,a)\}&\text{if }a\ne\epsilon\\\phi&\text{if }a=\epsilon\end{cases} δ′(r,a)={{δ(r,a)}ϕ​if a=ϵif a=ϵ​Then $N=(Q,\Sigma ,{\delta }^{\prime })$ is an NFA, whose behavior is exactly the same as that of the DFA $M$, the easiest way to see this is by observing that the state diagrams of $M$ and $N$ are equal. Therefore, we have $L(M)=L(N)$

2.4 NFA to DFA

Definition 1
The $ϵ-\text{closure}$ of a set of states $R\subseteq Q$:
E ( R ) = { q ∣ q  can be reached from  R  by travelling over zero or more  ϵ  transitions  } E(R)=\{q|q \text{ can be reached from }R\text{ by travelling over zero or more }\epsilon\text{ transitions }\} E(R)={q∣q can be reached from R by travelling over zero or more ϵ transitions }

Definition 2
Suppose that there is a set of states $R$ and $a\in \Sigma$, we say that $R_a=ϵ-\text{closure}(J)$ where $J$ is the set that can be reached from $R$ by travelling over $a$

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3. Regular Language

Definition
Previous: A language is regular if it is recognized by some DFA
Now: A language is regular if and only if some NFA recognizes it
Some operations on languages: Union, Concatenation and Kleene star

3.1 Closed under operation

A collection $S$ of objects is closed under operation $f$ if applying $f$ to members of $S$ always returns an object still in $S$.

Regular languages are indeed closed under the regular operations (Union, Concatenation, Kleene star)

3.1.1 Regular Languages Closed Under Union

Proof
$A$ and $B$ are regular languages over the same alphabet $\Sigma$, there are automata $M_1=(Q_1,\Sigma ,{\delta }_1,q_1,F_1)$ and $M_2=(Q_2,\Sigma ,{\delta }_2,q_2,F_2)$ that accept $A$ and $B$, respectively.

We can define $M=(Q,\Sigma ,\delta ,q,F)$ where:

• $Q=Q_1\times Q_2=\{(q_1,q_2):q_1\in Q_1\text{ and }{q}_2\in Q_2\}$
• $q=(q_1,q_2)$
• $F=\{(q_1,q_2):q_1\in F_1\text{ or }{q}_2\in F_2\}$
• $\delta :\delta ((q_1,q_2),a)=(\delta (q_1,a),\delta (q_2,a)),a\in \Sigma$

Then:$$M\text{ accept }w⟺{\delta }^{\ast }((q_1,q_2),w)\in F⟺{\delta }^{\ast }(q_1,w)\in F_1\text{ or }{\delta }^{\ast }(q_2,w)\in F_2$$

So that $L(M)=L(M_1)\cup L(M_2)$

Proof from the perspective of NFA
Consider $M_1,M_2$ are NFAs, we assume that $Q_1\cap Q_2=\varnothing$
We can define $M=(Q,\Sigma ,\delta ,q,F)$ where:

• Q = { q 0 } ∪ Q 1 ∪ Q 2 Q=\{q_0\}\cup Q_1\cup Q_2 Q={q0​}∪Q1​∪Q2​
• $q_0$ is the start state of $M$
• $F=F_1\cup F_2$

Then: δ ( q , a ) = { δ 1 ( q , a ) if  r ∈ Q 1 δ 2 ( q , a ) if  r ∈ Q 2 { q 1 , q 2 } if  r = q 0  and  a = ϵ ∅ if  r = q 0  and  a ≠ ϵ \delta(q,a)=\begin{cases}\delta_1(q,a)&\text{if }r\in Q_1\\\delta_2(q,a)&\text{if }r\in Q_2\\\{q_1,q_2\}&\text{if }r=q_0\text{ and }a=\epsilon\\\varnothing&\text{if }r=q_0\text{ and }a\ne\epsilon\end{cases} δ(q,a)=⎩ ⎨ ⎧​δ1​(q,a)δ2​(q,a){q1​,q2​}∅​if r∈Q1​if r∈Q2​if r=q0​ and a=ϵif r=q0​ and a=ϵ​

用图论的话来说，相当于建一虚点 $q_0$，指向两个 NFA 的起点。

3.1.2 Regular Languages Closed Under Concatenation

The concatenation of $A_1$ and $A_2$ is defined as: A 1 A 2 = { w w ′ : w ∈ A 1  and  w ′ ∈ A 2 } A_1A_2=\{ww^\prime:w\in A_1\text{ and }w^\prime\in A_2\} A1​A2​={ww′:w∈A1​ and w′∈A2​}

Proof

• $Q=Q_1\cup Q_2$
• $q=q_1$
• $F=F_2$

Then: δ ( q , a ) = { δ 1 ( q , a ) if  q ∈ Q 1  and  q ∉ F 1 δ 1 ( q , a ) if  q ∈ F 1  and  a ≠ ϵ δ 1 ( q , a ) ∪ { q 2 } if  q ∈ F 1  and  a = ϵ δ 2 ( q , a ) if  r ∈ Q 2 \delta(q,a)=\begin{cases}\delta_1(q,a)&\text{if }q\in Q_1\text{ and }q\notin F_1\\\delta_1(q,a)&\text{if }q\in F_1\text{ and }a\ne\epsilon\\\delta_1(q,a)\cup\{q_2\}&\text{if }q\in F_1\text{ and }a=\epsilon\\\delta_2(q,a)&\text{if }r\in Q_2\end{cases} δ(q,a)=⎩ ⎨ ⎧​δ1​(q,a)δ1​(q,a)δ1​(q,a)∪{q2​}δ2​(q,a)​if q∈Q1​ and q∈/F1​if q∈F1​ and a=ϵif q∈F1​ and a=ϵif r∈Q2​​

相当于是把所有的 $F_1$ 连到了 $q_2$，有种首尾相接的感觉。

3.1.3 Regular Languages Closed Under Kleene star

Proof

• Q = { q 0 } ∪ Q 1 Q=\{q_0\}\cup Q_1 Q={q0​}∪Q1​
• $q_0$ is the start state of $M$
• F = { q 0 } ∪ F 1 F=\{q_0\}\cup F_1 F={q0​}∪F1​

Then: δ ( q , a ) = { δ 1 ( q , a ) if  q ∈ Q 1  and  q ∉ F 1 δ 1 ( q , a ) if  q ∈ F 1  and  a ≠ ϵ δ 1 ( q , a ) ∪ { q 1 } if  q ∈ F 1  and  a = ϵ { q 1 } if  q = q 0  and  a = ϵ ∅ if  q = q 0  and  a ≠ ϵ \delta(q,a)=\begin{cases}\delta_1(q,a)&\text{if }q\in Q_1\text{ and }q\notin F_1\\\delta_1(q,a)&\text{if }q\in F_1\text{ and }a\ne\epsilon\\\delta_1(q,a)\cup\{q_1\}&\text{if }q\in F_1\text{ and }a=\epsilon\\\{q_1\}&\text{if }q=q_0\text{ and }a=\epsilon\\\varnothing&\text{if }q=q_0\text{ and }a\ne\epsilon\end{cases} δ(q,a)=⎩ ⎨ ⎧​δ1​(q,a)δ1​(q,a)δ1​(q,a)∪{q1​}{q1​}∅​if q∈Q1​ and q∈/F1​if q∈F1​ and a=ϵif q∈F1​ and a=ϵif q=q0​ and a=ϵif q=q0​ and a=ϵ​

所有 $F$ 都连到了 $q_1$ 上，白了就是递归

3.1.4 Regular Languages Closed Under Complement and Interaction

If $A$ is a regular language over the alphabet $\Sigma$, then the complement: A ˉ { w ∈ Σ ∗ : w ∉ A } \bar A\{w\in\Sigma^*:w\notin A\} Aˉ{w∈Σ∗:w∈/A}is also a regular language.

If $A_1$ and $A_2$ are regular languages over the same alphabet $\Sigma$, then the interaction: A 1 ∩ A 2 = { w ∈ Σ ∗ : w ∈ A 1  and  w ∈ A 2 } A_1\cap A_2=\{w\in\Sigma^*:w\in A_1\text{ and }w\in A_2\} A1​∩A2​={w∈Σ∗:w∈A1​ and w∈A2​} is also a regular language.

3.2 Regular Expressions

Regular expressions are means to describe certain languages.

Let $\Sigma$ be a non-empty alphabet.

1. $ϵ$ is a regular expression
2. $\varnothing$ is a regular expression
3. For each $a\in \Sigma$, $a$ is a regular expression
4. If $R_1$ and $R_2$ are regular expressions, then $R_1\cup R_2$ is a regular expression, the same as $R_1{R}_2$, $R_1^{\ast }$

If $R$ is a regular expression, then $L(R)$ is the language generated / described / defined by $R$.

1. $ϵ$ describes the language { ϵ } \{\epsilon\} {ϵ}
2. $\varnothing$ describes the language $\varnothing$
3. For each $a\in \Sigma$, the regular expression a describes the language { a } \{a\} {a}
4. If $R_1,R_2$ are regular expressions and $L_1,L_2$ are the languages described by them, respectively. $R_1\cup R_2$ describes the language $L_1\cup L_2$, the same as $R_1{R}_2$, $R_1^{\ast }$

3.3 Kleene’s Theorem

Let $L$ be a language. Then $L$ is regular iff there exists a regular expression that describes $L$.

• If a language is described by a regular expression, then it is regular.
• If a language is regular, then it has a regular expression.

3.4 GNFA

A GNFA can be defined as a 5-tuple ( Q , Σ , δ , { s } , { t } ) (Q,\Sigma,\delta,\{s\},\{t\}) (Q,Σ,δ,{s},{t})

• $Q$ is a finite set of states
• $\Sigma$ is a finite set of alphabet
• δ : ( Q ∖ { t } ) × ( Q ∖ { s } ) → R \delta:(Q\setminus\{t\})\times(Q\setminus\{s\})\rightarrow R δ:(Q∖{t})×(Q∖{s})→R
• $s\in Q$
• $t\in Q$

3.4.1 DFA 转 GNFA

Convert a DFA into a regular expression

DFA转GNFA

3.5 Pumping Lemma for Regular Languages

A tool that can be used to prove that certain languages are not regular. This theorem states that all regular languages have a special property.

This property states that all strings in the language can be “pumped” if they are at least as long as a certain special value, called the pumping length. That means each such string contains a section that can be repeated any number of times with resulting string remaining in the language.

• If a language $L$ is regular, it always satisfies pumping lemma. If there exists at least one string made from pumping which is not in $L$, then $L$ is surely not regular.
• If pumping lemma holds, it does not mean that the language is regular.
  
  
  

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4. Context-Free Languages

4.1 CFG

Context-Free Grammar

A context-free grammar is a 4-tuple $G=(V,\Sigma ,R,S)$, where

• $V$ is a finite set, whose elements are called variables
• $\Sigma$ is a finite set, whose elements are called terminals
• $V\cap \Sigma =\varnothing$
• $S$ is an element of $V$, it is called the start variable
• $R$ is a finite set, whose elements are called rules. Each rule has the form $A\to w$, where $A\in V$ and $w\in (V\cup \Sigma {)}^{\ast }$

Definition 1: yeild $\Rightarrow$
Let $G=(V,\Sigma ,R,S)$ be a context free grammar with

• $A\in V$
• $u,v,w\in (V\cup \Sigma {)}^{\ast }$
• $A\to w$ is a rule of the grammar

The string $uwv$ can be derived in one step from the string $uAv$, written as$$uAv\Rightarrow uwv$$

Definition 2: derive $\stackrel{\ast }{\Rightarrow }$
Let $G=(V,\Sigma ,R,S)$ be a context free grammar with

• $u,v\in (V\cup \Sigma {)}^{\ast }$

The string $v$ can be derived from the string $u$, written as $u\stackrel{\ast }{\Rightarrow }v$, if one of the following conditions holds:

• $u=v$
• there exist an integer $k\ge 2$ and a sequence $u_1,u_2,\cdots ,u_k$ of strings in $(V\cup \Sigma {)}^{\ast }$, such that
  • $u=u_1$
  • $v=u_k$ and $u_1\Rightarrow u_2\Rightarrow u_3\cdots \Rightarrow u_k$

4.1.1 Language of CFG

The language of CFG $G=(V,\Sigma ,R,S)$ is L ( G ) = { w ∈ Σ ∗ ∣ S ⇒ ∗ w } L(G)=\{w\in\Sigma^*|S\stackrel*\Rightarrow w\} L(G)={w∈Σ∗∣S⇒∗w}Such a language is called context-free, and satisfies $L(G)\subseteq {\Sigma }^{\ast }$

Theorem
Let $\Sigma$ be an alphabet and let $L\subseteq {\Sigma }^{\ast }$ be a regular language. Then $L$ is a context-free language (Every regular language is context-free)

4.2 CNF

Chomsky Normal Form

A context-free grammar $G=(V,\Sigma ,R,S)$ is said to be in Chomsky normal form, if every rule in $R$ has one of the following three forms:

• $A\to BC$, where $A,B,C$ are elements of $V$, $B\ne S$ and $C\ne S$
• $A\to a$, where $A$ is an element of $V$ and $a$ is an element of $\Sigma$
• $S\to ϵ$, where $S$ is the start variable

Grammars in CNF are far easier to analyze.

Theorem
Let $\Sigma$ be an alphabet and let $L\subseteq {\Sigma }^{\ast }$ be a CFL. There exists a CFG in CNF, whose language is $L$. That is, every CFL can be described by a CFG in CNF

4.2.1 Converting CFG into CNF

1. Eliminate the start variable from the right-hand side of the rules.
   • New start variable $S_0$
   • New rule $S_0\to S$
2. Remove $ϵ$-rules $A\to ϵ$, where A ∈ V − { S } A\in V-\{S\} A∈V−{S}. When removing $A\to ϵ$ rules, insert all new replacements
   • Before: $B\to AbA$ and $A\to ϵ|\cdots$
   • After: $B\to AbA|bA|Ab|b$ and $A\to \cdots$
3. Remove unit rules $A\to B$, where $A\in V$
   • Before: $A\to B$ and $B\to xCy$
   • After: $A\to xCy$ and $B\to xCy$
4. Eliminate all rules having more than two symbols on the right-hand side.
   • Before: $A\to B_1{B}_2{B}_3$
   • After: $A\to B_1{A}_1,A_1\to B_2{B}_3$
5. Eliminate all rules of the form $A\to ab$, where $a$ and $b$ are not both variables.
   • Before: $A\to ab$
   • After: $A\to B_1{B}_2,B_1\to a,B_2\to b$

4.3 PDA

NFA is a PDA without stack.

Pushdown Automata
The class of languages that can be accepted by pushdown automata is exactly the class of context-free languages (finite automata are for regular languages).

• The input for a pushdown automaton is a string $w$ in ${\Sigma }^{\ast }$
• Different from finite automata, PDAs have a single stack.
• Stack have 2 different operations:
  • push: adds item to top of stack
  • pop: removes item from top of stack

• Tape: divided into cells that store symbols belonging to Σ ϵ = Σ ∪ { ϵ } \Sigma_\epsilon=\Sigma\cup\{\epsilon\} Σϵ​=Σ∪{ϵ}
• Tape head: move along the tape, one cell to the right per move.
• Stack: containing symbols from a finite set $\Gamma$, called the stack alphabet. This set contains a special symbol $ (often mark bottom of stack).
• State control: can be in any one of a finite number of states. The set of states is denoted by $Q$. The set $Q$ contains one special state q, called the start state.

PDA Transition
If PDA

• in state $q_i$
• reads $a\in {\Sigma }_{ϵ}$
• pops $b\in {\Gamma }_{ϵ}$ off the stack

If $a=ϵ$, then no input symbol is read.
If $b=ϵ$, then nothing is popped off stack.

Then PDA

• moves to state $q_j$
• push $c\in {\Gamma }_{ϵ}$ onto top of stack

If $c=ϵ$, then nothing is pushed onto stack
If $c=u_1{u}_2\cdots u_k$ with $k\ge 1$ and $u_1,u_2,\cdots ,u_k\in \Gamma$, then $b$ is replaced by $c$, and $u_k$ becomes the new top symbol of the stack.

A pushdown automaton is a 6-tuple $M=(Q,\Sigma ,\Gamma ,\delta ,q,F)$

• $Q$ is finite set of states
• $\Sigma$ is (finite) input (tape) alphabet
• $\Gamma$ is (finite) stack alphabet
• $\delta$ is the transition function: Q × Σ ϵ × Γ → Q × { N , R } × Γ ϵ ∗ Q\times\Sigma_\epsilon\timesΓ\rightarrow Q\times\{N,R\}\timesΓ_\epsilon^* Q×Σϵ​×Γ→Q×{N,R}×Γϵ∗​
• $q\in Q$ is start state
• $F\subseteq Q$ is set of accept states

Let r ′ ∈ Q , σ ∈ { N , R } r^\prime\in Q,\sigma\in\{N,R\} r′∈Q,σ∈{N,R}, and $w\in {\Gamma }^{\ast }$ $$\delta (r,a,b)=(r^{\prime },\sigma ,c)$$

The tape head moves according to $\sigma$:

• If $\sigma =R$, it moves one cell to the right
• If $\sigma =N$, it does not move

4.3.1 Nondeterministic PDA

PDA transition function allows for nondeterminism $$\delta :Q\times {\Sigma }_{ϵ}\times {\Gamma }_{ϵ}\to P(Q\times {\Gamma }_{ϵ})$$

4.3.2 Language accepted by PDA

The set of all input strings that are accepted by PDA $M$ is the language recognized by $M$ and is denoted by $L(M)$

4.4 Equivalence of PDA and context-free languages

Let $\Sigma$ be an alphabet and let $A\subseteq {\Sigma }^{\ast }$ be a language. Then $A$ is context-free if and only if there exists a pushdown automaton that accepts $A$.

• If $A=L(G)$ for some CFG $G$, then $A=L(M)$ for some PDA $M$.
• If $A=L(M)$ for some PDA $M$, then $A=L(G)$ for some CFG $G$.

Proof: If $A=L(G)$ for some CFG $G$, then $A=L(M)$ for some PDA $M$.

Basic idea: Given CFG $G$, convert it into PDA $M$ with $L(M)=L(G)$ by building PDA that simulates a leftmost derivation.

However, PDA cannot push strings instead of $\le 1$ symbols onto stack. How can we solve this problem?$$\delta :Q\times {\Sigma }_{ϵ}\times {\Gamma }_{ϵ}\to P(Q\times {\Gamma }_{ϵ})$$

4.4.1 CFLs and regular languages

If $A$ is a regular language, then $A$ is also a CFL.

4.5 The pumping lemma for context-free languages

4.5.1 Pumping Lemma for CFLs

Let $L$ be a context-free language. Then there exists an integer $p\ge 1$, called the pumping length, such that the following holds: Every string s in $L$, with $|s|\ge p$, can be written as $s=uvxyz$, such that

• $|vy|\ge 1$
• $|vxy|\le p$
• $u{v}^{i}x{y}^{i}z\in L$, for all $i\ge 0$.

Split String Using Parse Tree

• More generally, consider “long” string $s\in A$.
• Parse tree is “tall”, $\exists$ repeated variable $R$ in path from root $S$ to leaf.
• Split string $s=uvxyz$ into 5 pieces based on repeated variable $R$:
  • $u$ is before $R-R$ subtree (in depth-first order)
  • $v$ is before second $R$ subtree within $R-R$ subtree
  • $x$ is what second $R$ eventually becomes
  • $y$ is after second $R$ within $R-R$ subtree
  • $z$ is after $R-R$ subtree