Sparse Autoencoder1-NeuralNetworks

原文：http://deeplearning.stanford.edu/wiki/index.php/Neural_Networks

Consider a supervised learning problem where we have access to labeled training examples (x⁽ⁱ⁾,y⁽ⁱ⁾). Neural networks give a way of defining a complex, non-linear form of hypotheses h_W,b(x), with parameters W,b that we can fit to our data.

To describe neural networks, we will begin by describing the simplest possible neural network, one which comprises a single "neuron." We will use the following diagram to denote a single neuron:

This "neuron" is a computational unit that takes as input x₁,x₂,x₃ (and a +1 intercept term), and outputs , where  is called the activation function. In these notes, we will choose  to be the sigmoid function:

Thus, our single neuron corresponds exactly to the input-output mapping defined by logistic regression.

Although these notes will use the sigmoid function, it is worth noting that another common choice for f is the hyperbolic tangent, or tanh, function:

Here are plots of the sigmoid and tanh functions:

 

The tanh(z) function is a rescaled version of the sigmoid, and its output range is [ − 1,1] instead of [0,1].

Note that unlike some other venues (including the OpenClassroom videos, and parts of CS229), we are not using the convention here of x₀ = 1. Instead, the intercept term is handled separately by the parameter b.

Finally, one identity that'll be useful later: If f(z) = 1 / (1 + exp( − z)) is the sigmoid function, then its derivative is given by f'(z) = f(z)(1 − f(z)). (If f is the tanh function, then its derivative is given by f'(z) = 1 − (f(z))².) You can derive this yourself using the definition of the sigmoid (or tanh) function.

Neural Network model

A neural network is put together by hooking together many of our simple "neurons," so that the output of a neuron can be the input of another. For example, here is a small neural network:

In this figure, we have used circles to also denote the inputs to the network. The circles labeled "+1" are called bias units, and correspond to the intercept term. The leftmost layer of the network is called the input layer, and the rightmost layer the output layer (which, in this example, has only one node). The middle layer of nodes is called thehidden layer, because its values are not observed in the training set. We also say that our example neural network has 3input units (not counting the bias unit), 3 hidden units, and 1 output unit.

We will let n_l denote the number of layers in our network; thus n_l = 3 in our example. We label layer l as L_l, so layer L₁is the input layer, and layer  the output layer. Our neural network has parameters (W,b) = (W⁽¹⁾,b⁽¹⁾,W⁽²⁾,b⁽²⁾), where we write  to denote the parameter (or weight) associated with the connection between unit j in layer l, and unit i in layer l + 1. (Note the order of the indices.) Also,  is the bias associated with unit i in layer l + 1. Thus, in our example, we have , and . Note that bias units don't have inputs or connections going into them, since they always output the value +1. We also let s_l denote the number of nodes in layer l (not counting the bias unit).

We will write  to denote the activation (meaning output value) of unit i in layer l. For l = 1, we also use  to denote the i-th input. Given a fixed setting of the parameters W,b, our neural network defines a hypothesis h_W,b(x) that outputs a real number. Specifically, the computation that this neural network represents is given by:

In the sequel, we also let  denote the total weighted sum of inputs to unit i in layer l, including the bias term (e.g., ), so that .

Note that this easily lends itself to a more compact notation. Specifically, if we extend the activation function  to apply to vectors in an element-wise fashion (i.e., f([z₁,z₂,z₃]) = [f(z₁),f(z₂),f(z₃)]), then we can write the equations above more compactly as:

We call this step forward propagation. More generally, recalling that we also use a⁽¹⁾ = x to also denote the values from the input layer, then given layer l's activations a^(l), we can compute layer l + 1's activations a^{(l + 1)} as:

By organizing our parameters in matrices and using matrix-vector operations, we can take advantage of fast linear algebra routines to quickly perform calculations in our network.

We have so far focused on one example neural network, but one can also build neural networks with other architectures(meaning patterns of connectivity between neurons), including ones with multiple hidden layers. The most common choice is a-layered network where layer  is the input layer, layer  is the output layer, and each layer  is densely connected to layer . In this setting, to compute the output of the network, we can successively compute all the activations in layer, then layer , and so on, up to layer , using the equations above that describe the forward propagation step. This is one example of a feedforward neural network, since the connectivity graph does not have any directed loops or cycles.

Neural networks can also have multiple output units. For example, here is a network with two hidden layers layers L₂ and L₃and two output units in layer L₄:

To train this network, we would need training examples (x⁽ⁱ⁾,y⁽ⁱ⁾) where . This sort of network is useful if there're multiple outputs that you're interested in predicting. (For example, in a medical diagnosis application, the vector x might give the input features of a patient, and the different outputs y_i's might indicate presence or absence of different diseases.)