首先记录在做课后练习的过程中出现的一些可能的常见错误
①ndimage模块的方法问题*
主要问题出现该模块的imread()方法以及imresize()方法。
使用的时候会报错：
imresize is deprecated！
imread is deprecated!
-该方法已经被移除
解决方法：
使用matplotlib.pyplot.imread()方法或者imageio.imread()方法来代替ndimage()方法，需要调用matplotlib模块或imageio模块。
使用skimage.transform.resize()方法来代替imresize()方法。
使用的时候参数基本一致但是也有些问题，对应问题②
**
②skimage.transform.resize()方法以及imread()方法的参数问题
**
调用skimage.transform.resize()方法的使用，第一个参数必须是图片矩阵，第二个参数必须是需要调整到的图片的大小，为一个元组。并且都不需要指定参数名。
调用imageio.imread()或者matplotlib.pyplot.imread()方法时，不像以及被移除的ndimage.imread()方法那样不仅需要传入作为图片文件路径的参数，还要传入命名可变参数flatten。
在替代的方法只需要传入图片文件路径即可。
作业的详细情况
Jupyter Notebook assignment2_2
Logistic Regression with a Neural Network mindset
Welcome to your first (required) programming assignment! You will build a logistic regression classifier to recognize cats. This assignment will step you through how to do this with a Neural Network mindset, and so will also hone your intuitions about deep learning.
Instructions:
Do not use loops (for/while) in your code, unless the instructions explicitly ask you to do so.
You will learn to:
Build the general architecture of a learning algorithm, including:
Initializing parameters
Calculating the cost function and its gradient
Using an optimization algorithm (gradient descent)
Gather all three functions above into a main model function, in the right order.
1 - Packages
First, let’s run the cell below to import all the packages that you will need during this assignment.
numpy is the fundamental package for scientific computing with Python.
h5py is a common package to interact with a dataset that is stored on an H5 file.
matplotlib is a famous library to plot graphs in Python.
PIL and scipy are used here to test your model with your own picture at the end.
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import h5py
import scipy
from PIL import Image
from scipy import ndimage
from lr_utils import load_dataset
%matplotlib inline
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import h5py
import scipy
from PIL import Image
from scipy import ndimage
from lr_utils import load_dataset
%matplotlib inline
2 - Overview of the Problem set
Problem Statement: You are given a dataset (“data.h5”) containing:
- a training set of m_train images labeled as cat (y=1) or non-cat (y=0)
- a test set of m_test images labeled as cat or non-cat
- each image is of shape (num_px, num_px, 3) where 3 is for the 3 channels (RGB). Thus, each image is square (height = num_px) and (width = num_px).
You will build a simple image-recognition algorithm that can correctly classify pictures as cat or non-cat.
Let’s get more familiar with the dataset. Load the data by running the following code.
#Loading the data (cat/non-cat)
#train_set_x_orig中第一维度是样本，第二维第三维是像素，第四维是rgb值
#现在还未对属性集进行处理，但是基本上是行代表特征，列代表样本
train_set_x_orig, train_set_y, test_set_x_orig, test_set_y, classes = load_dataset()
print(train_set_x_orig.shape,train_set_y.shape,test_set_x_orig.shape)
>>>(209, 64, 64, 3) (1, 209) (50, 64, 64, 3)
We added “_orig” at the end of image datasets (train and test) because we are going to preprocess them. After preprocessing, we will end up with train_set_x and test_set_x (the labels train_set_y and test_set_y don’t need any preprocessing).
Each line of your train_set_x_orig and test_set_x_orig is an array representing an image. You can visualize an example by running the following code. Feel free also to change the index value and re-run to see other images.
#Example of a picture
#Example of a picture
index = 25
plt.imshow(train_set_x_orig[index])
print ("y = " + str(train_set_y[:, index]) + ", it's a '" + classes[np.squeeze(train_set_y[:, index])].decode("utf-8") + "' picture.")
>>>y = [1], it's a 'cat' picture.
-----------图像传不进了。。。是一只猫的图片，请忽略哈哈哈
Many software bugs in deep learning come from having matrix/vector dimensions that don’t fit. If you can keep your matrix/vector dimensions straight you will go a long way toward eliminating many bugs.
Exercise: Find the values for:
- m_train (number of training examples)
- m_test (number of test examples)
- num_px (= height = width of a training image)
Remember that train_set_x_orig is a numpy-array of shape (m_train, num_px, num_px, 3). For instance, you can access m_train by writing train_set_x_orig.shape[0].
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 3 lines of code)
m_train = train_set_x_orig.shape[0] #209个训练样本
m_test = test_set_x_orig.shape[0] #50个测试样本
num_px = train_set_x_orig.shape[1] #由于是正方形所以取一个就够了，都是64
### END CODE HERE ###
print ("Number of training examples: m_train = " + str(m_train))
print ("Number of testing examples: m_test = " + str(m_test))
print ("Height/Width of each image: num_px = " + str(num_px))
print ("Each image is of size: (" + str(num_px) + ", " + str(num_px) + ", 3)")
print ("train_set_x shape: " + str(train_set_x_orig.shape))
print ("train_set_y shape: " + str(train_set_y.shape))
print ("test_set_x shape: " + str(test_set_x_orig.shape))
print ("test_set_y shape: " + str(test_set_y.shape))
Number of training examples: m_train = 209
Number of testing examples: m_test = 50
Height/Width of each image: num_px = 64
Each image is of size: (64, 64, 3)
train_set_x shape: (209, 64, 64, 3)
train_set_y shape: (1, 209)
test_set_x shape: (50, 64, 64, 3)
test_set_y shape: (1, 50)
Expected Output for m_train, m_test and num_px:
**m_train** 209
**m_test** 50
**num_px** 64
For convenience, you should now reshape images of shape (num_px, num_px, 3) in a numpy-array of shape (num_px ∗ num_px ∗ 3, 1). After this, our training (and test) dataset is a numpy-array where each column represents a flattened image. There should be m_train (respectively m_test) columns.
Exercise: Reshape the training and test data sets so that images of size (num_px, num_px, 3) are flattened into single vectors of shape (num_px ∗ num_px ∗ 3, 1).
A trick when you want to flatten a matrix X of shape (a,b,c,d) to a matrix X_flatten of shape (b∗c∗d, a) is to use:
X_flatten = X.reshape(X.shape[0], -1).T # X.T is the transpose of X
，把图片平面化。
# Reshape the training and test examples
#这里把像素、颜色组合起来，降低维度，把图片平面化。
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
train_set_x_flatten = train_set_x_orig.reshape(train_set_x_orig.shape[0],-1).T
test_set_x_flatten = test_set_x_orig.reshape(test_set_x_orig.shape[0],-1).T
### END CODE HERE ###
print ("train_set_x_flatten shape: " + str(train_set_x_flatten.shape))
print ("train_set_y shape: " + str(train_set_y.shape))
print ("test_set_x_flatten shape: " + str(test_set_x_flatten.shape))
print ("test_set_y shape: " + str(test_set_y.shape))
print ("sanity check after reshaping: " + str(train_set_x_flatten[0:5,0]))
train_set_x_flatten shape: (12288, 209)
train_set_y shape: (1, 209)
test_set_x_flatten shape: (12288, 50)
test_set_y shape: (1, 50)
sanity check after reshaping: [17 31 56 22 33]
Expected Output:
**train_set_x_flatten shape** (12288, 209)
**train_set_y shape** (1, 209)
**test_set_x_flatten shape** (12288, 50)
**test_set_y shape** (1, 50)
**sanity check after reshaping** [17 31 56 22 33]
To represent color images, the red, green and blue channels (RGB) must be specified for each pixel, and so the pixel value is actually a vector of three numbers ranging from 0 to 255.
One common preprocessing step in machine learning is to center and standardize your dataset, meaning that you substract the mean of the whole numpy array from each example, and then divide each example by the standard deviation of the whole numpy array. But for picture datasets, it is simpler and more convenient and works almost as well to just divide every row of the dataset by 255 (the maximum value of a pixel channel).
Let’s standardize our dataset.
train_set_x = train_set_x_flatten/255.
test_set_x = test_set_x_flatten/255.
What you need to remember:
Common steps for pre-processing a new dataset are:
Figure out the dimensions and shapes of the problem (m_train, m_test, num_px, …)
Reshape the datasets such that each example is now a vector of size (num_px * num_px * 3, 1)
“Standardize” the data
3 - General Architecture of the learning algorithm
It’s time to design a simple algorithm to distinguish cat images from non-cat images.
You will build a Logistic Regression, using a Neural Network mindset. The following Figure explains why Logistic Regression is actually a very simple Neural Network!
Mathematical expression of the algorithm:
For one example 𝑥(𝑖):
𝑧(𝑖)=𝑤𝑇𝑥(𝑖)+𝑏(1)
𝑦̂ (𝑖)=𝑎(𝑖)=𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑑(𝑧(𝑖))(2)
3 - General Architecture of the learning algorithm
It’s time to design a simple algorithm to distinguish cat images from non-cat images.
You will build a Logistic Regression, using a Neural Network mindset. The following Figure explains why Logistic Regression is actually a very simple Neural Network!
Mathematical expression of the algorithm:
For one example
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\hat{y}^{(i)} = a^{(i)} = sigmoid(z^{(i)})\tag{2}
y^(i)=a(i)=sigmoid(z(i))(2)
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\mathcal{L}(a^{(i)}, y^{(i)}) = - y^{(i)} \log(a^{(i)}) - (1-y^{(i)} ) \log(1-a^{(i)})\tag{3}
L(a(i),y(i))=−y(i)log(a(i))−(1−y(i))log(1−a(i))(3)
The cost is then computed by summing over all training examples:
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J = \frac{1}{m} \sum_{i=1}^m \mathcal{L}(a^{(i)}, y^{(i)})\tag{6}
J=m1i=1∑mL(a(i),y(i))(6)
Key steps:
In this exercise, you will carry out the following steps:
- Initialize the parameters of the model
- Learn the parameters for the model by minimizing the cost
- Use the learned parameters to make predictions (on the test set)
- Analyse the results and conclude
4 - Building the parts of our algorithm
The main steps for building a Neural Network are:
Define the model structure (such as number of input features)
Initialize the model’s parameters
Loop:
Calculate current loss (forward propagation)
Calculate current gradient (backward propagation)
Update parameters (gradient descent)
You often build 1-3 separately and integrate them into one function we call model().
4.1 - Helper functions
4 - Building the parts of our algorithm
The main steps for building a Neural Network are:
- Define the model structure (such as number of input features)
- Initialize the model’s parameters
- Loop:
- Calculate current loss (forward propagation)
- Calculate current gradient (backward propagation)
- Update parameters (gradient descent)
You often build 1-3 separately and integrate them into one function we call model().
4.1 - Helper functions
Exercise: Using your code from “Python Basics”, implement sigmoid(). As you’ve seen in the figure above, you need to compute
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sigmoid( w^T x + b) = \frac{1}{1 + e^{-(w^T x + b)}}
sigmoid(wTx+b)=1+e−(wTx+b)1 to make predictions. Use np.exp().
# GRADED FUNCTION: sigmoid
def sigmoid(z):
"""
Compute the sigmoid of z
Arguments:
z -- A scalar or numpy array of any size.
Return:
s -- sigmoid(z)
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
s = 1/(1+np.exp(-z))
### END CODE HERE ###
return s
print ("sigmoid([0, 2]) = " + str(sigmoid(np.array([0,2]))))
sigmoid([0, 2]) = [0.5 0.88079708]
Expected Output:
**>>>sigmoid([0, 2])** [ 0.5 0.88079708]
4.2 - Initializing parameters
Exercise: Implement parameter initialization in the cell below. You have to initialize w as a vector of zeros. If you don’t know what numpy function to use, look up np.zeros() in the Numpy library’s documentation.
# GRADED FUNCTION: initialize_with_zeros
def initialize_with_zeros(dim):
"""
This function creates a vector of zeros of shape (dim, 1) for w and initializes b to 0.
Argument:
dim -- size of the w vector we want (or number of parameters in this case)
Returns:
w -- initialized vector of shape (dim, 1)
b -- initialized scalar (corresponds to the bias)
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
w = np.zeros(dim).reshape(dim,1) #创建行数为特征数n行数+1的列向量
b = 0
### END CODE HERE ###
assert(w.shape == (dim, 1)) #判断是否正确创建
assert(isinstance(b, float) or isinstance(b, int))
return w, b
dim = 2
w, b = initialize_with_zeros(dim)
print ("w = " + str(w))
print ("b = " + str(b))
w = [[0.]
[0.]]
b = 0
Expected Output:
** w ** [[ 0.] [ 0.]]
** b ** 0
For image inputs, w will be of shape (num_px × num_px × 3, 1).
4.3 - Forward and Backward propagation
4.3 - Forward and Backward propagation
Now that your parameters are initialized, you can do the “forward” and “backward” propagation steps for learning the parameters.
Exercise: Implement a function propagate() that computes the cost function and its gradient.
Hints:
Forward Propagation:
- You get X
- You compute A = σ ( w T X + b ) = ( a ( 0 ) , a ( 1 ) , . . . , a ( m − 1 ) , a ( m ) ) A = \sigma(w^T X + b) = (a^{(0)}, a^{(1)}, ..., a^{(m-1)}, a^{(m)}) A=σ(wTX+b)=(a(0),a(1),...,a(m−1),a(m))
- You calculate the cost function: J = − 1 m ∑ i = 1 m y ( i ) log ( a ( i ) ) + ( 1 − y ( i ) ) log ( 1 − a ( i ) ) J = -\frac{1}{m}\sum_{i=1}^{m}y^{(i)}\log(a^{(i)})+(1-y^{(i)})\log(1-a^{(i)}) J=−m1∑i=1my(i)log(a(i))+(1−y(i))log(1−a(i))
Here are the two formulas you will be using:
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∂b∂J=m1i=1∑m(a(i)−y(i))(8)
# GRADED FUNCTION: propagate
def propagate(w, b, X, Y):
"""
Implement the cost function and its gradient for the propagation explained above
Arguments:
w -- weights, a numpy array of size (num_px * num_px * 3, 1)
b -- bias, a scalar
X -- data of size (num_px * num_px * 3, number of examples)
Y -- true "label" vector (containing 0 if non-cat, 1 if cat) of size (1, number of examples)
Return:
cost -- negative log-likelihood cost for logistic regression
dw -- gradient of the loss with respect to w, thus same shape as w
db -- gradient of the loss with respect to b, thus same shape as b
Tips:
- Write your code step by step for the propagation. np.log(), np.dot()
"""
m = X.shape[1]
# FORWARD PROPAGATION (FROM X TO COST)
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
A = sigmoid(np.dot(w.T,X)+b) # compute activation
cost = (-1/m)*np.sum((Y*np.log(A) + (1-Y)*np.log(1-A)) ) # compute cost 计算所有的样本的误差，所以需要用到sum
### END CODE HERE ###
# BACKWARD PROPAGATION (TO FIND GRAD)
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
dw = (1/m)*np.dot(X,(A-Y).T)
db = (1/m)*np.sum(A-Y)
### END CODE HERE ###
assert(dw.shape == w.shape)
assert(db.dtype == float)
cost = np.squeeze(cost)
assert(cost.shape == ())
grads = {"dw": dw,
"db": db}
return grads, cost
w, b, X, Y = np.array([[1],[2]]), 2, np.array([[1,2],[3,4]]), np.array([[1,0]])
grads, cost = propagate(w, b, X, Y)
print ("dw = " + str(grads["dw"]))
print ("db = " + str(grads["db"]))
print ("cost = " + str(cost))
dw = [[0.99993216]
[1.99980262]]
db = 0.49993523062470574
cost = 6.000064773192205
Expected Output:
** dw ** [[ 0.99993216] [ 1.99980262]]
** db ** 0.499935230625
** cost ** 6.000064773192205
d) Optimization
You have initialized your parameters.
You are also able to compute a cost function and its gradient.
Now, you want to update the parameters using gradient descent.
Exercise: Write down the optimization function. The goal is to learn 𝑤 and 𝑏 by minimizing the cost function 𝐽. For a parameter 𝜃, the update rule is 𝜃=𝜃−𝛼 𝑑𝜃, where 𝛼 is the learning rate.
#指定迭代次数下for循环，无法避免
# GRADED FUNCTION: optimize
def optimize(w, b, X, Y, num_iterations, learning_rate, print_cost = False):
"""
This function optimizes w and b by running a gradient descent algorithm
Arguments:
w -- weights, a numpy array of size (num_px * num_px * 3, 1)
b -- bias, a scalar
X -- data of shape (num_px * num_px * 3, number of examples)
Y -- true "label" vector (containing 0 if non-cat, 1 if cat), of shape (1, number of examples)
num_iterations -- number of iterations of the optimization loop
learning_rate -- learning rate of the gradient descent update rule
print_cost -- True to print the loss every 100 steps
Returns:
params -- dictionary containing the weights w and bias b
grads -- dictionary containing the gradients of the weights and bias with respect to the cost function
costs -- list of all the costs computed during the optimization, this will be used to plot the learning curve.
Tips:
You basically need to write down two steps and iterate through them:
1) Calculate the cost and the gradient for the current parameters. Use propagate().
2) Update the parameters using gradient descent rule for w and b.
"""
costs = []
for i in range(num_iterations): #指定迭代次数下for循环，无法避免
# Cost and gradient calculation (≈ 1-4 lines of code)
### START CODE HERE ###
grads, cost = propagate(w, b, X, Y)
### END CODE HERE ###
# Retrieve derivatives from grads
dw = grads["dw"]
db = grads["db"]
# update rule (≈ 2 lines of code)
### START CODE HERE ###
w = w - learning_rate*dw
b = b - learning_rate*db
### END CODE HERE ###
# Record the costs
if i % 100 == 0: #100次记录一次
costs.append(cost)
# Print the cost every 100 training examples
if print_cost and i % 100 == 0:
print ("Cost after iteration %i: %f" %(i, cost))
params = {"w": w, #这个用来存储参数
"b": b}
grads = {"dw": dw, #这个用来存储参数的梯度
"db": db}
return params, grads, costs
params, grads, costs = optimize(w, b, X, Y, num_iterations= 100, learning_rate = 0.009, print_cost = False)
print ("w = " + str(params["w"]))
print ("b = " + str(params["b"]))
print ("dw = " + str(grads["dw"]))
print ("db = " + str(grads["db"]))
w = [[0.1124579 ]
[0.23106775]]
b = 1.5593049248448891
dw = [[0.90158428]
[1.76250842]]
db = 0.4304620716786828
Expected Output:
<tr>
<td> **b** </td>
<td> 1.55930492484 </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> **dw** </td>
<td> [[ 0.90158428]
[ 1.76250842]]
**w** [[ 0.1124579 ] [ 0.23106775]]
db 0.430462071679
Exercise: The previous function will output the learned w and b. We are able to use w and b to predict the labels for a dataset X. Implement the predict() function. There is two steps to computing predictions:
Calculate 𝑌̂ =𝐴=𝜎(𝑤𝑇𝑋+𝑏)
Convert the entries of a into 0 (if activation <= 0.5) or 1 (if activation > 0.5), stores the predictions in a vector Y_prediction. If you wish, you can use an if/else statement in a for loop (though there is also a way to vectorize this).
# GRADED FUNCTION: predict
def predict(w, b, X):
'''
Predict whether the label is 0 or 1 using learned logistic regression parameters (w, b)
Arguments:
w -- weights, a numpy array of size (num_px * num_px * 3, 1)
b -- bias, a scalar
X -- data of size (num_px * num_px * 3, number of examples)
Returns:
Y_prediction -- a numpy array (vector) containing all predictions (0/1) for the examples in X
'''
m = X.shape[1]
Y_prediction = np.zeros((1,m))
w = w.reshape(X.shape[0], 1)
# Compute vector "A" predicting the probabilities of a cat being present in the picture
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
A = sigmoid(np.dot(w.T,X) + b) #计算当前的参数下每个样本的预测结果
### END CODE HERE ###
#这里必须使用for循环，无法避免
for i in range(A.shape[1]):
# Convert probabilities A[0,i] to actual predictions p[0,i]
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 4 lines of code)
if(A[0,i] > 0.5): #以0.5为阈值
Y_prediction[0,i] = 1
else:
Y_prediction[0, i] = 0
### END CODE HERE ###
assert(Y_prediction.shape == (1, m))
return Y_prediction
print ("predictions = " + str(predict(w, b, X)))
predictions = [[1. 1.]]
Expected Output:
**predictions** [[ 1. 1.]]
What to remember: You’ve implemented several functions that: - Initialize (w,b) - Optimize the loss iteratively to learn parameters (w,b): - computing the cost and its gradient - updating the parameters using gradient descent - Use the learned (w,b) to predict the labels for a given set of examples
5 - Merge all functions into a model
You will now see how the overall model is structured by putting together all the building blocks (functions implemented in the previous parts) together, in the right order.
Exercise: Implement the model function. Use the following notation:
- Y_prediction for your predictions on the test set
- Y_prediction_train for your predictions on the train set
- w, costs, grads for the outputs of optimize()
# GRADED FUNCTION: model
def model(X_train, Y_train, X_test, Y_test, num_iterations = 2000, learning_rate = 0.5, print_cost = False):
"""
Builds the logistic regression model by calling the function you've implemented previously
Arguments:
X_train -- training set represented by a numpy array of shape (num_px * num_px * 3, m_train)
Y_train -- training labels represented by a numpy array (vector) of shape (1, m_train)
X_test -- test set represented by a numpy array of shape (num_px * num_px * 3, m_test)
Y_test -- test labels represented by a numpy array (vector) of shape (1, m_test)
num_iterations -- hyperparameter representing the number of iterations to optimize the parameters
learning_rate -- hyperparameter representing the learning rate used in the update rule of optimize()
print_cost -- Set to true to print the cost every 100 iterations
Returns:
d -- dictionary containing information about the model.
"""
### START CODE HERE ###
# initialize parameters with zeros (≈ 1 line of code)
w, b = initialize_with_zeros(X_train.shape[0])
# Gradient descent (≈ 1 line of code)
parameters, grads, costs = optimize(w, b, X_train, Y_train, num_iterations, learning_rate, print_cost)
# Retrieve parameters w and b from dictionary "parameters"
w = parameters["w"]
b = parameters["b"]
# Predict test/train set examples (≈ 2 lines of code)
Y_prediction_test = predict(w, b, X_test)
Y_prediction_train = predict(w, b, X_train)
### END CODE HERE ###
# Print train/test Errors
print("train accuracy: {} %".format(100 - np.mean(np.abs(Y_prediction_train - Y_train)) * 100))
print("test accuracy: {} %".format(100 - np.mean(np.abs(Y_prediction_test - Y_test)) * 100))
d = {"costs": costs,
"Y_prediction_test": Y_prediction_test,
"Y_prediction_train" : Y_prediction_train,
"w" : w,
"b" : b,
"learning_rate" : learning_rate,
"num_iterations": num_iterations}
return d
Run the following cell to train your model.
d = model(train_set_x, train_set_y, test_set_x, test_set_y, num_iterations = 2000, learning_rate = 0.005, print_cost = True)
Cost after iteration 0: 0.693147
Cost after iteration 100: 0.584508
Cost after iteration 200: 0.466949
Cost after iteration 300: 0.376007
Cost after iteration 400: 0.331463
Cost after iteration 500: 0.303273
Cost after iteration 600: 0.279880
Cost after iteration 700: 0.260042
Cost after iteration 800: 0.242941
Cost after iteration 900: 0.228004
Cost after iteration 1000: 0.214820
Cost after iteration 1100: 0.203078
Cost after iteration 1200: 0.192544
Cost after iteration 1300: 0.183033
Cost after iteration 1400: 0.174399
Cost after iteration 1500: 0.166521
Cost after iteration 1600: 0.159305
Cost after iteration 1700: 0.152667
Cost after iteration 1800: 0.146542
Cost after iteration 1900: 0.140872
train accuracy: 99.04306220095694 %
test accuracy: 70.0 %
Expected Output:
<tr>
<td> **Train Accuracy** </td>
<td> 99.04306220095694 % </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>**Test Accuracy** </td>
<td> 70.0 % </td>
</tr>
Comment: Training accuracy is close to 100%. This is a good sanity check: your model is working and has high enough capacity to fit the training data. Test error is 68%. It is actually not bad for this simple model, given the small dataset we used and that logistic regression is a linear classifier. But no worries, you’ll build an even better classifier next week!
Also, you see that the model is clearly overfitting the training data. Later in this specialization you will learn how to reduce overfitting, for example by using regularization. Using the code below (and changing the index variable) you can look at predictions on pictures of the test set.
# Example of a picture that was wrongly classified.
index = 1
pre = d["Y_prediction_test"][0,index]
plt.imshow(test_set_x[:,index].reshape((num_px, num_px, 3)))
print ("y = " + str(test_set_y[0,index]) + ", you predicted that it is a \"" + classes[int(pre)].decode("utf-8") + "\" picture.")
y = 1, you predicted that it is a "cat" picture.
Let’s also plot the cost function and the gradients.
# Plot learning curve (with costs)
costs = np.squeeze(d['costs'])
plt.plot(costs)
plt.ylabel('cost')
plt.xlabel('iterations (per hundreds)')
plt.title("Learning rate =" + str(d["learning_rate"]))
plt.show()
Interpretation: You can see the cost decreasing. It shows that the parameters are being learned. However, you see that you could train the model even more on the training set. Try to increase the number of iterations in the cell above and rerun the cells. You might see that the training set accuracy goes up, but the test set accuracy goes down. This is called overfitting.
6 - Further analysis (optional/ungraded exercise)
Congratulations on building your first image classification model. Let’s analyze it further, and examine possible choices for the learning rate 𝛼.
Choice of learning rate
Reminder: In order for Gradient Descent to work you must choose the learning rate wisely. The learning rate 𝛼 determines how rapidly we update the parameters. If the learning rate is too large we may “overshoot” the optimal value. Similarly, if it is too small we will need too many iterations to converge to the best values. That’s why it is crucial to use a well-tuned learning rate.
Let’s compare the learning curve of our model with several choices of learning rates. Run the cell below. This should take about 1 minute. Feel free also to try different values than the three we have initialized the learning_rates variable to contain, and see what happens.
learning_rates = [0.01, 0.001, 0.0001]
models = {}
for i in learning_rates:
print ("learning rate is: " + str(i))
models[str(i)] = model(train_set_x, train_set_y, test_set_x, test_set_y, num_iterations = 1500, learning_rate = i, print_cost = False)
print ('\n' + "-------------------------------------------------------" + '\n')
for i in learning_rates:
plt.plot(np.squeeze(models[str(i)]["costs"]), label= str(models[str(i)]["learning_rate"]))
plt.ylabel('cost')
plt.xlabel('iterations')
legend = plt.legend(loc='upper center', shadow=True)
frame = legend.get_frame()
frame.set_facecolor('0.90')
plt.show()
learning rate is: 0.01
train accuracy: 99.52153110047847 %
test accuracy: 68.0 %
-------------------------------------------------------
learning rate is: 0.001
train accuracy: 88.99521531100478 %
test accuracy: 64.0 %
-------------------------------------------------------
learning rate is: 0.0001
train accuracy: 68.42105263157895 %
test accuracy: 36.0 %
-------------------------------------------------------
Interpretation:
Different learning rates give different costs and thus different predictions results.
If the learning rate is too large (0.01), the cost may oscillate up and down. It may even diverge (though in this example, using 0.01 still eventually ends up at a good value for the cost).
A lower cost doesn’t mean a better model. You have to check if there is possibly overfitting. It happens when the training accuracy is a lot higher than the test accuracy.
In deep learning, we usually recommend that you:
Choose the learning rate that better minimizes the cost function.
If your model overfits, use other techniques to reduce overfitting. (We’ll talk about this in later videos.)
7 - Test with your own image (optional/ungraded exercise)
Congratulations on finishing this assignment. You can use your own image and see the output of your model. To do that:
- Click on “File” in the upper bar of this notebook, then click “Open” to go on your Coursera Hub.
- Add your image to this Jupyter Notebook’s directory, in the “images” folder
- Change your image’s name in the following code
- Run the code and check if the algorithm is right (1 = cat, 0 = non-cat)!
## START CODE HERE ## (PUT YOUR IMAGE NAME)
#import imageio
import matplotlib
my_image = "cat_in_iran.jpg" # change this to the name of your image file
## END CODE HERE ##
# We preprocess the image to fit your algorithm.
fname = "images/" + my_image
#image = np.array(ndimage.imread(fname, flatten=False))
#image = np.array(imageio.imread(fname)) #这里需要用imageio模块代替，ndimage以及被移除了
#或者使用matplotlib.pyplot.imread来代替。
image = np.array(matplotlib.pyplot.imread(fname))
#my_image = skimage.misc.imresize(image, size=(num_px,num_px)).reshape((1, num_px*num_px*3)).T
#使用skimage.transform.resize取代
my_image = skimage.transform.resize(image,(num_px,num_px)).reshape((1,num_px*num_px*3)).T
my_predicted_image = predict(d["w"], d["b"], my_image)
plt.imshow(image)
print("y = " + str(np.squeeze(my_predicted_image)) + ", your algorithm predicts a \"" + classes[int(np.squeeze(my_predicted_image)),].decode("utf-8") + "\" picture.")
## START CODE HERE ## (PUT YOUR IMAGE NAME)
#根据结果，很显然这个简单的神经网络过拟合了。
#import imageio
import matplotlib
my_image = "cat_in_iran.jpg" # change this to the name of your image file
## END CODE HERE ##
# We preprocess the image to fit your algorithm.
fname = "images/" + my_image
#image = np.array(ndimage.imread(fname, flatten=False))
#image = np.array(imageio.imread(fname)) #这里需要用imageio模块代替，ndimage以及被移除了
#或者使用matplotlib.pyplot.imread来代替。
image = np.array(matplotlib.pyplot.imread(fname))
#my_image = skimage.misc.imresize(image, size=(num_px,num_px)).reshape((1, num_px*num_px*3)).T
#使用skimage.transform.resize取代
my_image = skimage.transform.resize(image,(num_px,num_px)).reshape((1,num_px*num_px*3)).T
my_predicted_image = predict(d["w"], d["b"], my_image)
plt.imshow(image)
print("y = " + str(np.squeeze(my_predicted_image)) + ", your algorithm predicts a \"" + classes[int(np.squeeze(my_predicted_image)),].decode("utf-8") + "\" picture.")
>>>y = 1.0, your algorithm predicts a "cat" picture.
输出的图片无法插入
What to remember from this assignment:
- Preprocessing the dataset is important.
预处理数据集非常重要。这里主要是特征正规化。 - You implemented each function separately: initialize(), propagate(), optimize(). Then you built a model().
应该分步骤的实施每一个函数：initalize()函数初始化参数w、b-》propagate()函数计算向前传播时的cost代价函数值，夹杂计算激励函数sigmoid()函数-》optimize()函数以一定的学习率在一定的迭代次数下通过梯度下降最优化参数w、b，并随之记录迭代过程中的cost值。 - Tuning the learning rate (which is an example of a “hyperparameter”) can make a big difference to the algorithm. You will see more examples of this later in this course!
对于该最简单的神经网络–逻辑回归算法来说，调换学习率能够该算法的带来很大的不同。
Finally, if you’d like, we invite you to try different things on this Notebook. Make sure you submit before trying anything. Once you submit, things you can play with include:
- Play with the learning rate and the number of iterations
- Try different initialization methods and compare the results
- Test other preprocessings (center the data, or divide each row by its standard deviation)
Bibliography:
http://www.wildml.com/2015/09/implementing-a-neural-network-from-scratch/
https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/211436/why-do-we-normalize-images-by-subtracting-the-datasets-image-mean-and-not-the-c
共勉。。。
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