R offset

"Exposure" and offset[edit]

Poisson regression may also be appropriate for rate data, where the rate is a count of events divided by some measure of that unit's exposure (a particular unit of observation). For example, biologists may count the number of tree species in a forest: events would be tree observations, exposure would be unit area, and rate would be the number of species per unit area. Demographers may model death rates in geographic areas as the count of deaths divided by person−years. More generally, event rates can be calculated as events per unit time, which allows the observation window to vary for each unit. In these examples, exposure is respectively unit area, person−years and unit time. In Poisson regression this is handled as an offset, where the exposure variable enters on the right-hand side of the equation, but with a parameter estimate (for log(exposure)) constrained to 1.

{\displaystyle \log(\operatorname {E} (Y\mid x))=\log({\text{exposure}})+\theta 'x}{\displaystyle \log(\operatorname {E} (Y\mid x))=\log({\text{exposure}})+\theta 'x}

which implies

{\displaystyle \log(\operatorname {E} (Y\mid x))-\log({\text{exposure}})=\log \left({\frac {\operatorname {E} (Y\mid x)}{\text{exposure}}}\right)=\theta 'x}{\displaystyle \log(\operatorname {E} (Y\mid x))-\log({\text{exposure}})=\log \left({\frac {\operatorname {E} (Y\mid x)}{\text{exposure}}}\right)=\theta 'x}

Offset in the case of a GLM in R can be achieved using the offset() function:

glm(y ~ offset(log(exposure)) + x, family=poisson(link=log) )

### 关于 `movl` 和偏移量的汇编指令用法 #### 定义与基本概念 在 GCC 内联汇编中,`movl` 是一种用于数据传输的重要指令。该命令可以将立即数、寄存器中的值或是内存位置的数据移动到另一个指定的位置[^1]。 对于带有偏移量的操作而言,通常涉及到访问数组元素或者是结构体成员等场景下的地址计算。通过给定基址加上一定的位移来定位目标存储单元,在 AT&T 语法下表达形式如下: - 基本格式:`movl $value, %reg` 或者 `movl variable(%rip), %reg` - 使用偏移量:`movl offset(base_register), destination` 这里需要注意的是不同平台架构可能会影响具体写法;例如 x86_64 架构可能会采用 RIP-relative 寻址方式。 #### 实际应用案例 下面给出一段简单的 C++ 程序片段以及对应的内联汇编实现,展示了如何利用 `movl` 及其带有的偏移量参数读取并操作数组内的特定项: ```cpp #include <iostream> int main() { int arr[] = {0, 1, 2, 3}; asm volatile ( "movl (%1), %%eax;" // Load first element into eax register. "addl $5, %%eax;" // Add immediate value 5 to the loaded data. "movl %%eax, (%0);" // Store result back at address pointed by operand 0. : "=r"(arr[0]) // Output operands. : "r"(&arr[0]), // Input operands. "m"(arr[0]) : "%eax" // Clobbered registers. ); std::cout << "Modified array item: " << arr[0] << "\n"; } ``` 上述例子中,第一个 `movl` 指令从内存加载了一个整型数值至 EAX 寄存器之中,而第二个则是执行加法运算并将最终的结果保存回原处。此过程中并未涉及复杂的寻址模式,但如果要处理更复杂的情况,则可以通过调整源操作数的形式引入适当大小的偏移量。 当不需要副作用时,不建议使用关键字 `volatile` ,这有助于 GCC 对代码进行优化使其更加简洁高效[^2]。
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