第二章:
章节汇总:
- 集合:
- 集合语言,集合操作,集合
- 函数:
- 函数种类,函数操作,可计算性
- 序列:
- 序列种类,求和公式
- 总和:
- 可数集
- 矩阵:
- 矩阵算术
Chapter Summary
- Sets
- The Language of Sets, Set Operations, Set Identities
- Functions
- Types of Functions, Operations on Functions,
- Computability
- Sequences and Summations
- Types of Sequences, Summation Formulae
- Set Cardinality
- Countable Sets
- Matrices
- Matrix Arithmetic
集合:
小节汇总:
- 集的定义
- 描述集
- 名册方法
- Set-Builder表示法
- 数学中的一些重要集合
- 空集和通用集
- 子集和设置平等
- 集合的基数
- 元组
- 笛卡尔积
Section Summary
- Definition of sets
- Describing Sets
- Roster Method
- Set-Builder Notation
- Some Important Sets in Mathematics
- Empty Set and Universal Set
- Subsets and Set Equality
- Cardinality of Sets
- Tuples
- Cartesian Product
简介
- 集合是离散数学中考虑的对象类型的基本构建块之一。
- 计数很重要。
- 编程语言已设置操作。
- 集合论是数学的一个重要分支。
- 许多不同的公理系统已被用于发展集合论。
- 这里我们不关心集合论的正式公理集。 相反,我们将使用所谓的朴素集理论(第118页)。
- Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types of objects considered in discrete mathematics.
- Important for counting.
- Programming languages have set operations.
- Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
- Many different systems of axioms have been used to develop set theory.
- Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for set theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve set theory( page 118).
集合:
- 集合是无序的对象集合。
- 本课程的学生
- 这个房间的椅子
- 集合中的对象称为元素或集合的成员。 据说一组包含其元素。
- 符号a∈A表示a是集合A的元素。
- 如果a不是A的成员,请写一个∉A
set:
- A set is an unordered collection of objects.
- the students in this class
- the chairs in this room
- The objects in a set are called the elements, or members of the set. A set is said to contain its elements.
- The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of the set A.
- If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A
描述集合:名册方法
- S= {a,b,c,d}
- 顺序不重要
- S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
- 每个不同的对象都是成员; 不止一次列出同一成员不会改变集合。
- S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
- 当规律明了时,Elipses(...)可用于描述一个集合而不列出所有成员。
- S = {a,b,c,d,......,z}
Describing a Set: Roster Method
- S = {a,b,c,d}
- Order not important
- S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
- Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing more than once does not change the set.
- S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
- Elipses (...) may be used to describe a set without listing all of the members when the pattern is clear.
- S = {a,b,c,d, ......,z }
- 英语字母表中所有元音的集合:V = {a,e,i,o,u}
- 小于10的所有奇数正整数的集合:O = {1,3,5,7,9}
- 小于100的所有正整数的集合:S = {1,2,3,........,99}
- 小于0的所有整数的集合:S = {....,-3,-2,-1}
- Set of all vowels in the English alphabet: V = {a,e,i,o,u}
- Set of all odd positive integers less than 10: O = {1,3,5,7,9}
- Set of all positive integers less than 100: S = {1,2,3,........,99}
- Set of all integers less than 0: S = {...., -3,-2,-1}
一些重要的集合
- N =自然数= {0,1,2,3 ....}
- Z =整数= {..., - 3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
- Z + = 正整数= {1,2,3,.....}
- R =实数集
- R + =正实数集合
- C =复数集合。
- Q =有理数集
Some Important Sets
- N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3....}
- Z = integers = {...,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
- Z+ = positive integers = {1,2,3,.....}
- R = set of real numbers
- R+ = set of positive real numbers
- C = set of complex numbers.
- Q = set of rational numbers
描述一个集合:集生成器表示法
- 指定所有成员必须满足的属性:
- S = {x | x是小于100的正整数}
- O = {x | x是小于10的奇数正整数} O = {x∈Z+ | x是奇数,x <10}
- 可以使用谓词:S = {x | P(x)}
- 示例:S = {x | Prime(x)}
- 正有理数:
- Q + = {x∈R| x = p / q,对于某些正整数p,q}
Describing a Set: Set-Builder Notation
- Specify the property or properties that all members must satisfy:
- S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
- O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10} O = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10}
- A predicate may be used: S={x|P(x)}
- Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
- Positive rational numbers:
- Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
间隔符号
- [a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
- [a,b)={x|a≤x<b}
- (a,b]={x|a<x≤b}
- (a,b)={x|a<x<b}
- 闭区间[a,b]
- 开区间(a,b)
Interval Notation
- [a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
- [a,b)={x|a≤x<b}
- (a,b]={x|a<x≤b}
- (a,b)={x|a<x<b}
- closed interval [a,b]
- open interval (a,b)
包含其他集的集
- 示例:集合{N,Z,Q,R}是一个包含四个元素的集合,每个元素都是一个集合。 这个集合的四个元素是
N,自然数的集合;
Z,整数集;
Q,有理数的集合; 和R,一组实数。
Sets containing other sets
- Example: The set {N,Z,Q,R} is a set containing four elements, each of which is a set. The four elements
of this set are
N, the set of natural numbers;
Z, the set of integers;
Q, the set of rational numbers; and R, the set of real numbers.
计算机科学中的数据类型
- 计算机科学中数据类型或类型的概念建立在集合的概念之上。
- 特别是,数据类型或类型是集合的名称,以及可以对该集合中的对象执行的一组操作。
- 例如,boolean是集合{0,1}的名称以及该集合的一个或多个元素上的运算符,例如AND,OR和NOT。
- 你还有另一个例子吗?
Datatype in Computer Science
- The concept of a datatype, or type, in computer science is built upon the concept of a set.
- In particular, a datatype or type is the name of a set, together with a set of operations that can be performed on objects from that set.
- For example, boolean is the name of the set {0, 1} together with operators on one or more elements of this set, such as AND, OR, and NOT.
- Do you have another example?
全集和空集
- 全集U是包含当前正在考虑的所有内容的集合。
- 有时暗示
- 有时明确说明。
- 内容取决于具体情况。
- 空集(空集)是没有元素的集合。 符号化∅,但也使用{}。
Universal Set and Empty Set
- The universal set U is the set containing everything currently under consideration.
- Sometimes implicit
- Sometimes explicitly stated.
- Contents depend on the context.
- The empty set(null set)is the set with no elements. Symbolized ∅, but {} also used.
要记住一些事情
- 集合可以是集合的元素。
{{1,2,3},a,{b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
- 空集与包含空集的集不同。
∅≠{∅}
Some things to remember
- Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
- The empty set is different from a set containing the empty set.
∅ ≠{ ∅ }
集合相等
- 定义:当且仅当它们具有相同的元素时,两个集合是相等的。
- 因此,如果A和B是集合,当且仅当A和B是相同的集合,则A和B相等,
我们认为A = B if A 和 B是等集 。
{1,3,5} = {3,5,1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.
- Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and only if Any x(x∈A<->x∈B)
- We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
维恩图
John Venn(1834-1923)英国剑桥
-
可以用英语数学家约翰·维恩(John Venn)命名的图表,以图表的形式使用文字图,他们在1881年介绍了它们的用法。
-
在维恩图中,包含所有考虑对象的通用集U由矩形表示。
Venn Diagrams
John Venn (1834-1923) Cambridge, UK
-
Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams, named after the English mathematician John Venn, who introduced their use in 1881.
-
In Venn diagrams the universal set U, which contains all the objects under consideration, is represented by a rectangle.
-
Inside this rectangle, circles or other geometrical figures are used to represent sets. Sometimes points are used to represent the particular elements of the set.
-
Venn diagrams are often used to indicate the relationships between sets.
子集
定义:集合A是B的子集,当且仅当A的每个元素也是B的元素时。
-
符号A⊆B用于表示A是集合B的子集。
-
当且仅当a为真时,A⊆B成立。
1.因为对于每一组S,a∈∅总是假的,对于任何 S,∅⊆S。
2.因为αS→a∈S,S⊆S,forevery setS。
⊆:子集
Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if every element of A is also an element of B.
-
The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.
-
A ⊆ B holds if and only if is true.
1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S , for every set S.
2. Becausea∈S →a∈S, S⊆S, for every set S.
⊆ : subset of
表明一个集合是否是另一个集合的子集
-
表明A是一个B的子集:为表明A⊆B,表明如果x属于A,那么x也属于B.
-
表明A不是B的子集:为了表明A不是B的子集,A⊈B,找一个属于元素 x∈A与x∉B。(这样的x是声称x∈Aimpliesx∈B的反例。)
例子:
1.你学校所有计算机科学专业的学生都是你学校所有学生的一部分。
2.平方小于100的整数集不是非负整数集的子集。
Showing a Set is or is not a Subset of Another Set
-
Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A⊆B, show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
-
Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A isnotasubsetofB,A⊈B, find an elementx∈Awith x ∉ B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that x∈Aimpliesx∈B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is a subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a subset of the set of nonnegative integers.
再看看集合的平等性
-
回想一下,两组A和B相等,用A = B表示,iff
-
Any x(x∈A<->x∈B)
-
使用逻辑等价,我们得到A = B iff
-
这等价于
A⊆B和B⊆A
Another look at Equality of Sets
-
Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by A = B, iff
-
Any x(x∈A<->x∈B)
-
-
Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff
-
This is equivalent to
A⊆B and B⊆A
真子集
定义:如果A⊆B,但A≠B,那么wesayAisa B的真子集,用A⊂B表示。如果A⊂B,那么
是真的。
Proper Subsets
Definition:IfA⊆B,butA ≠B,thenwesayAisa proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, thenis true.
集合的基数
定义:如果S中恰好有n个不同的元素,其中n是非负整数,我们说S是有限的。 否则它是无限的。
定义:有限集A的基数,由| A |表示,是A的(不同)元素的数量。
例子:
1. |ø| = 0
2.设S是英文字母的字母。 然后| S | = 26
3. | {1,2,3} | = 3
4. | {ø} | = 1
5. 整数集是无限的。
Set Cardinality
Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite. Otherwise it is infinite.
Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |A|, is the number of (distinct) elements of A.
Examples:
1. |ø| = 0
2. Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26
3. |{1,2,3}| = 3
4. |{ø}| = 1
5. The set of integers is infinite.
幂集
定义:集合A的所有子集的集合,表示为P(A),称为A的幂集。
示例:如果A = {a,b}则
P(A)= {ø,{a},{b},{a,b}}总共4个子集 - 2^2
-
如果一个集合有n个元素,那么幂集的基数是2^n。
-
让我们以另一种方式看同一个例子。 示例:如果A = {a,b},则P(A)= {ø,{a},{b},{a,b}}
使用二进制数字1表示元素包含在子集中; 使用二进制数字0表示元素未包含在子集中。
00-子集中既不包含a也不包含b。ø
01 - b,而不是a,包含在子集中。{b}
10 - a,而不是b,包含在子集中。 {a}
11 - a或b都包含在子集中。{a,b}
-
如果一个集合有n个元素,那么幂集的基数是2^n。
示例:购买锤子和螺丝刀的方式有多少种?
解:
A = {锤子,螺丝刀}然后
P(A)= {ø,
{一个锤子},
{一把螺丝起子},
{锤子,螺丝刀}}
示例:空集的幂集是多少? 集合{∅}的幂集是多少?
解:
空集恰好有一个子集,即它本身。 所以,
P(∅)= {∅}。
集合{∅}恰好有两个子集,即∅和
设置{∅}本身。 因此,P({∅})= {∅,{∅}}。
Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A, denoted P(A), is called the power set of A.
Example: If A = {a,b} then
P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}} 4 subsets in total - 22
-
If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the power set is 2n.
-
Let’ s look at the same example in another way. Example: If A = {a,b} then P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}
Use binary digit 1 to indicate an element is contained in a subset; use binary digit 0 to indicate an element is not contained in a subset.
00 – neither a nor b is contained in a subset. ø 01 – b, not a, is contained in a subset. {b}
10 – a, not b, is contained in a subset. {a}
11 – both a or b is contained in a subset. {a,b}
-
If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the power set is 2n.
Example: How many different ways are there to purchase a hammer and a screw driver?
Solution:
A = {a hammer, a screw driver} then P(A) = {ø,
{a hammer},
{a screw driver},
{a hammer, a screw driver}}
Example: What is the power set of the empty set? What is the power set of the set {∅}?
Solution:
The empty set has exactly one subset, namely, itself. Consequently,
P(∅) = {∅}.
The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, namely, ∅ and the
set {∅} itself. Therefore, P({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}.
有序的n元组
-
有序的n元组(a1,a2,.....,an)是有序集合,其中a1作为其第一个元素,a2作为其第二个元素,依此类推,直到作为其最后一个元素。
-
当且仅当它们的相应元素相等时,两个n元组是相等的。
-
2元组称为有序对。
-
当且仅当a = c且b = d时,有序对(a,b)和(c,d)相等。
Ordered n-Tuples
-
The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,.....,an) is the ordered collection that has a1 as its first element and a2 as its second element and so on until an as its last element.
-
Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their corresponding elements are equal.
-
2-tuples are called ordered pairs.
-
The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.
笛卡尔积
定义:由A×B表示的两组A和B的笛卡尔乘积是有序对(a,b)的集合,其中a∈A和b∈B。
例:
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A×B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3),(b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}
-
定义:笛卡尔乘积A×B的子集R称为从集合A到集合B的关系。关系将在第9章中详细介绍。
-
定义:集合A1,A2,......,An的笛卡尔积,由A1×A2×......×An表示,是有序n元组(a1,a2,...)的集合。 .....,a)ai属于Ai
对于i = 1,... n。
示例:什么是A×B×C,其中A = {0,1},B = {1,2}且C = {0,1,2}
解:A×B×C = {(0,1,0),(0,1,1),(0,1,2),(0,2,0),(0,2,1),( 0,2,2),(1,1,0),(1,1,1),(1,1,2),(1,2,0),(1,2,1),(1,2,2)}
Cartesian Product
Definition: The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of ordered pairs (a, b) where a∈A and b∈B.
Example:
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}
-
Definition: A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is called a relation from the set A to the set B. (Relations will be covered in depth in Chapter 9. )
-
Definition: The cartesian products of the sets A1,A2,......,An, denoted by A1 × A2 × ...... × An , is the set of ordered n-tuples (a1,a2,......,an) where ai belongs to Ai
for i = 1, ... n.
Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2} and C = {0,1,2}
Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1), (0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,2,2)}
量词的真实集合
-
给定谓词P和域D,我们将P的真值集定义为D中P(x)为真的元素集。 P(x)的真值集用表示
-
例子:P(x)的真值集,其中域是整数,P(x)是“| x | = 1“是集合{-1,1}
Truth Sets of Quantifiers
-
Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the truth set of P to be the set of elements in D for which P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by
-
Example: The truth set of P(x) where the domain is the integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the set {-1,1}