离散结构：基础结构：集合，函数，序列，总和，和矩阵（Basic Structure:Set,Function,Sequences,Sums and Matrixes ）(1)

第二章：

章节汇总：

• 集合：
  • 集合语言，集合操作，集合
• 函数：
  • 函数种类，函数操作，可计算性
• 序列：
  • 序列种类，求和公式
• 总和：
  • 可数集
• 矩阵：
• 矩阵算术

Chapter Summary

• Sets
  • The Language of Sets, Set Operations, Set Identities
• Functions
  • Types of Functions, Operations on Functions,
  • Computability
• Sequences and Summations
  • Types of Sequences, Summation Formulae
• Set Cardinality
  • Countable Sets
• Matrices
  • Matrix Arithmetic

集合：

小节汇总：

• 集的定义
• 描述集
  • 名册方法
  • Set-Builder表示法
• 数学中的一些重要集合
• 空集和通用集
• 子集和设置平等
• 集合的基数
• 元组
• 笛卡尔积

Section Summary

• Definition of sets
• Describing Sets
  • Roster Method
  • Set-Builder Notation
• Some Important Sets in Mathematics
• Empty Set and Universal Set
• Subsets and Set Equality
• Cardinality of Sets
• Tuples
• Cartesian Product

简介

• 集合是离散数学中考虑的对象类型的基本构建块之一。
  • 计数很重要。
  • 编程语言已设置操作。
• 集合论是数学的一个重要分支。
  • 许多不同的公理系统已被用于发展集合论。
  • 这里我们不关心集合论的正式公理集。 相反，我们将使用所谓的朴素集理论（第118页）。
• Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types of objects considered in discrete mathematics.
  • Important for counting.
  • Programming languages have set operations.
• Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
  • Many different systems of axioms have been used to develop set theory.
  • Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for set theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve set theory( page 118).

集合：

• 集合是无序的对象集合。
  • 本课程的学生
  • 这个房间的椅子
• 集合中的对象称为元素或集合的成员。 据说一组包含其元素。
• 符号a∈A表示a是集合A的元素。
• 如果a不是A的成员，请写一个∉A

set：

• A set is an unordered collection of objects.
  • the students in this class
  • the chairs in this room
• The objects in a set are called the elements, or members of the set. A set is said to contain its elements.
• The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of the set A.
• If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A

描述集合：名册方法

• S= {a，b，c，d}
• 顺序不重要
• S = {a，b，c，d} = {b，c，a，d}
• 每个不同的对象都是成员; 不止一次列出同一成员不会改变集合。
• S = {a，b，c，d} = {a，b，c，b，c，d}
• 当规律明了时，Elipses（...）可用于描述一个集合而不列出所有成员。
• S = {a，b，c，d，......，z}

Describing a Set: Roster Method

• S = {a,b,c,d}
• Order not important
• S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
• Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing more than once does not change the set.
• S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
• Elipses (...) may be used to describe a set without listing all of the members when the pattern is clear.
• S = {a,b,c,d, ......,z }

 

• 英语字母表中所有元音的集合：V = {a，e，i，o，u}
• 小于10的所有奇数正整数的集合：O = {1,3,5,7,9}
• 小于100的所有正整数的集合：S = {1,2,3，........，99}
• 小于0的所有整数的集合：S = {....，-3，-2，-1}
• Set of all vowels in the English alphabet: V = {a,e,i,o,u}
• Set of all odd positive integers less than 10: O = {1,3,5,7,9}
• Set of all positive integers less than 100: S = {1,2,3,........,99}
• Set of all integers less than 0: S = {...., -3,-2,-1}

一些重要的集合

• N =自然数= {0,1,2,3 ....}
• Z =整数= {...， - 3，-2，-1,0,1,2,3，...}
• Z + = 正整数= {1,2,3，.....}
• R =实数集
• R + =正实数集合
• C =复数集合。
• Q =有理数集

Some Important Sets

• N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3....}
• Z = integers = {...,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
• Z+ = positive integers = {1,2,3,.....}
• R = set of real numbers
• R+ = set of positive real numbers
• C = set of complex numbers.
• Q = set of rational numbers

描述一个集合：集生成器表示法

• 指定所有成员必须满足的属性：
• S = {x | x是小于100的正整数}
• O = {x | x是小于10的奇数正整数} O = {x∈Z+ | x是奇数，x <10}
• 可以使用谓词：S = {x | P（x）}
• 示例：S = {x | Prime（x）}
• 正有理数：
• Q + = {x∈R| x = p / q，对于某些正整数p，q}

Describing a Set: Set-Builder Notation

• Specify the property or properties that all members must satisfy:
• S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
• O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10} O = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10}
• A predicate may be used: S={x|P(x)}
• Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
• Positive rational numbers:
• Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}

间隔符号

• [a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
• [a,b)={x|a≤x<b}
• (a,b]={x|a<x≤b}
• (a,b)={x|a<x<b}
• 闭区间[a，b]
• 开区间（a，b）

Interval Notation

• [a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
• [a,b)={x|a≤x<b}
• (a,b]={x|a<x≤b}
• (a,b)={x|a<x<b}
• closed interval [a,b]
• open interval (a,b)

包含其他集的集

• 示例：集合{N，Z，Q，R}是一个包含四个元素的集合，每个元素都是一个集合。 这个集合的四个元素是

N，自然数的集合;
Z，整数集;
Q，有理数的集合; 和R，一组实数。

Sets containing other sets

• Example: The set {N,Z,Q,R} is a set containing four elements, each of which is a set. The four elements

of this set are
N, the set of natural numbers;
Z, the set of integers;
Q, the set of rational numbers; and R, the set of real numbers.

计算机科学中的数据类型

• 计算机科学中数据类型或类型的概念建立在集合的概念之上。
• 特别是，数据类型或类型是集合的名称，以及可以对该集合中的对象执行的一组操作。
• 例如，boolean是集合{0,1}的名称以及该集合的一个或多个元素上的运算符，例如AND，OR和NOT。
• 你还有另一个例子吗？

Datatype in Computer Science

• The concept of a datatype, or type, in computer science is built upon the concept of a set.
• In particular, a datatype or type is the name of a set, together with a set of operations that can be performed on objects from that set.
• For example, boolean is the name of the set {0, 1} together with operators on one or more elements of this set, such as AND, OR, and NOT.
• Do you have another example?

 

全集和空集

• 全集U是包含当前正在考虑的所有内容的集合。
  • 有时暗示
  • 有时明确说明。
  • 内容取决于具体情况。
• 空集（空集）是没有元素的集合。 符号化∅，但也使用{}。

Universal Set and Empty Set

•  The universal set U is the set containing everything currently under consideration.
  • Sometimes implicit
  • Sometimes explicitly stated.
  • Contents depend on the context.
• The empty set(null set)is the set with no elements. Symbolized ∅, but {} also used.

要记住一些事情

• 集合可以是集合的元素。

{{1,2,3}，a，{b，c}}

{N，Z，Q，R}

• 空集与包含空集的集不同。

∅≠{∅}

Some things to remember

• Sets can be elements of sets.

{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}

{N,Z,Q,R}

• The empty set is different from a set containing the empty set.

∅ ≠{ ∅ }

集合相等

• 定义：当且仅当它们具有相同的元素时，两个集合是相等的。
  • 因此，如果A和B是集合，当且仅当A和B是相同的集合，则A和B相等，

我们认为A = B if A 和 B是等集 。

{1,3,5} = {3,5,1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}

Set Equality

Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements.

• Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and only if Any x(x∈A<->x∈B）
• We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.

{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}

{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}

维恩图

John Venn（1834-1923）英国剑桥

• 可以用英语数学家约翰·维恩（John Venn）命名的图表，以图表的形式使用文字图，他们在1881年介绍了它们的用法。

• 在维恩图中，包含所有考虑对象的通用集U由矩形表示。

 

Venn Diagrams

John Venn (1834-1923) Cambridge, UK

• Sets can be represented graphically using Venn diagrams, named after the English mathematician John Venn, who introduced their use in 1881.

• In Venn diagrams the universal set U, which contains all the objects under consideration, is represented by a rectangle.

• Inside this rectangle, circles or other geometrical figures are used to represent sets. Sometimes points are used to represent the particular elements of the set.

• Venn diagrams are often used to indicate the relationships between sets.

 

子集

定义：集合A是B的子集，当且仅当A的每个元素也是B的元素时。

• 符号A⊆B用于表示A是集合B的子集。

• 当且仅当a为真时，A⊆B成立。

        1.因为对于每一组S，a∈∅总是假的，对于任何 S，∅⊆S。

        2.因为αS→a∈S，S⊆S，forevery setS。

        ⊆：子集

Subsets

Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if every element of A is also an element of B.

• The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.

• A ⊆ B holds if and only if   is true.

            1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S , for every set S.

            2. Becausea∈S →a∈S, S⊆S, for every set S.

            ⊆ : subset of

 

表明一个集合是否是另一个集合的子集

• 表明A是一个B的子集：为表明A⊆B，表明如果x属于A，那么x也属于B.

• 表明A不是B的子集：为了表明A不是B的子集，A⊈B，找一个属于元素 x∈A与x∉B。（这样的x是声称x∈Aimpliesx∈B的反例。）

例子：

1.你学校所有计算机科学专业的学生都是你学校所有学生的一部分。

2.平方小于100的整数集不是非负整数集的子集。

 

Showing a Set is or is not a Subset of Another Set

• Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A⊆B, show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.

• Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A isnotasubsetofB,A⊈B, find an elementx∈Awith x ∉ B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that x∈Aimpliesx∈B.)

Examples:

1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is a subset of all students at your school.

2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a subset of the set of nonnegative integers.

 

再看看集合的平等性

• 回想一下，两组A和B相等，用A = B表示，iff

• Any x（x∈A<->x∈B）

• 使用逻辑等价，我们得到A = B iff

• 这等价于

                            A⊆B和B⊆A

Another look at Equality of Sets

• Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by A = B, iff

  • Any x（x∈A<->x∈B）

• Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff

• This is equivalent to

                            A⊆B and B⊆A

 

真子集

定义：如果A⊆B，但A≠B，那么wesayAisa B的真子集，用A⊂B表示。如果A⊂B，那么

是真的。

Proper Subsets

Definition:IfA⊆B,butA ≠B,thenwesayAisa proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, thenis true.

 

集合的基数

定义：如果S中恰好有n个不同的元素，其中n是非负整数，我们说S是有限的。 否则它是无限的。

定义：有限集A的基数，由| A |表示，是A的（不同）元素的数量。

例子：

1. |ø| = 0

2.设S是英文字母的字母。 然后| S | = 26

3. | {1,2,3} | = 3

4. | {ø} | = 1

5. 整数集是无限的。

 

Set Cardinality

Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite. Otherwise it is infinite.

Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |A|, is the number of (distinct) elements of A.

Examples:

1. |ø| = 0

2. Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26

3. |{1,2,3}| = 3

4. |{ø}| = 1

5. The set of integers is infinite.

 

幂集

定义：集合A的所有子集的集合，表示为P（A），称为A的幂集。

示例：如果A = {a，b}则

P（A）= {ø，{a}，{b}，{a，b}}总共4个子集 - 2^2

• 如果一个集合有n个元素，那么幂集的基数是2^n。

• 让我们以另一种方式看同一个例子。 示例：如果A = {a，b}，则P（A）= {ø，{a}，{b}，{a，b}}

使用二进制数字1表示元素包含在子集中; 使用二进制数字0表示元素未包含在子集中。

00-子集中既不包含a也不包含b。ø

01 - b，而不是a，包含在子集中。{b}

10 - a，而不是b，包含在子集中。 {a}

11 - a或b都包含在子集中。{a，b}

• 如果一个集合有n个元素，那么幂集的基数是2^n。

 

示例：购买锤子和螺丝刀的方式有多少种？

解：

A = {锤子，螺丝刀}然后

P（A）= {ø，

{一个锤子}，

{一把螺丝起子}，

{锤子，螺丝刀}}

 

示例：空集的幂集是多少？ 集合{∅}的幂集是多少？

解：

空集恰好有一个子集，即它本身。 所以，

P（∅）= {∅}。

集合{∅}恰好有两个子集，即∅和

设置{∅}本身。 因此，P（{∅}）= {∅，{∅}}。

 

 

Power Sets

Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A, denoted P(A), is called the power set of A.

Example: If A = {a,b} then

P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}} 4 subsets in total - 22

• If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the power set is 2n.

 

• Let’ s look at the same example in another way. Example: If A = {a,b} then P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}

Use binary digit 1 to indicate an element is contained in a subset; use binary digit 0 to indicate an element is not contained in a subset.

00 – neither a nor b is contained in a subset. ø 01 – b, not a, is contained in a subset. {b}

10 – a, not b, is contained in a subset. {a}

11 – both a or b is contained in a subset. {a,b}

• If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the power set is 2n.

 

Example: How many different ways are there to purchase a hammer and a screw driver?

Solution:

A = {a hammer, a screw driver} then P(A) = {ø,

{a hammer},

{a screw driver},

{a hammer, a screw driver}}

 

Example: What is the power set of the empty set? What is the power set of the set {∅}?

Solution:

The empty set has exactly one subset, namely, itself. Consequently,

P(∅) = {∅}.

The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, namely, ∅ and the

set {∅} itself. Therefore, P({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}.

 

有序的n元组

• 有序的n元组（a1，a2，.....，an）是有序集合，其中a1作为其第一个元素，a2作为其第二个元素，依此类推，直到作为其最后一个元素。

• 当且仅当它们的相应元素相等时，两个n元组是相等的。

• 2元组称为有序对。

• 当且仅当a = c且b = d时，有序对（a，b）和（c，d）相等。

 

Ordered n-Tuples

• The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,.....,an) is the ordered collection that has a1 as its first element and a2 as its second element and so on until an as its last element.

• Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their corresponding elements are equal.

• 2-tuples are called ordered pairs.

• The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.

 

笛卡尔积

定义：由A×B表示的两组A和B的笛卡尔乘积是有序对（a，b）的集合，其中a∈A和b∈B。

例：

A = {a，b} B = {1,2,3}

A×B = {（a，1），（a，2），（a，3），（b，1），（b，2），（b，3）}

• 定义：笛卡尔乘积A×B的子集R称为从集合A到集合B的关系。关系将在第9章中详细介绍。

• 定义：集合A1，A2，......，An的笛卡尔积，由A1×A2×......×An表示，是有序n元组（a1，a2，...）的集合。 .....，a）ai属于Ai

对于i = 1，... n。

示例：什么是A×B×C，其中A = {0,1}，B = {1,2}且C = {0,1,2}

解：A×B×C = {（0,1,0）,（0,1,1）,（0,1,2）,（0,2,0）,（0,2,1）,（ 0,2,2）,（1,1,0）,（1,1,1）,（1,1,2）,（1,2,0）,（1,2,1）,（1,2,2）}

 

Cartesian Product

Definition: The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of ordered pairs (a, b) where a∈A and b∈B.

Example:

A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}

A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}

• Definition: A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is called a relation from the set A to the set B. (Relations will be covered in depth in Chapter 9. )

• Definition: The cartesian products of the sets A1,A2,......,An, denoted by A1 × A2 × ...... × An , is the set of ordered n-tuples (a1,a2,......,an) where ai belongs to Ai

for i = 1, ... n.

 

Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2} and C = {0,1,2}

Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1), (0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,2,2)}

 

量词的真实集合

• 给定谓词P和域D，我们将P的真值集定义为D中P（x）为真的元素集。 P（x）的真值集用表示

• 例子：P（x）的真值集，其中域是整数，P（x）是“| x | = 1“是集合{-1,1}

 

Truth Sets of Quantifiers

• Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the truth set of P to be the set of elements in D for which P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by

• Example: The truth set of P(x) where the domain is the integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the set {-1,1}