CPT205小豪的笔记-CSDN博客

本文链接：https://blog.csdn.net/qq_62123793/article/details/133214335

Computer Graphics

文章目录

1. Introduction
3. Transformation Pipeline and Geometric Transformations

1. Introduction

1.1 Hardware and Software

Graphics Hardware
- Input, Processing and Output Devices
- Framebuffers
- Pixels and Screen Resolution
Graphics Software
- Techniques (Algorithms, Procedures)
- Programming Library / API (OpenGL, JOGL and so on)
- Not our focus: High level Interactive Systems (Maya, Studio Max, Unity, AutoCAD and so on)

Framebuffer

Framebuffer – A block of memory, dedicated to graphics output, that holds the contents of what will be displayed.

Pixel - an element of the framebuffer.

Framebuffer -> monitor

The values in the framebuffer are converted from a digital (1s and 0s representation, the bits) to an analog signal that goes out to the monitor. This is done automatically (not controlled by your code), and the conversion can be done while writing to the framebuffer.

1.2 Image quality issues

Screen resolution
Colour
Refresh rate
Brightness
Contrast
Sensitivity of display to viewing angle

1.3 Pixels

Pixel - The most basic addressable image element in a screen
- CRT - Colour triad (RGB phosphor dots)
- LCD - Single colour element
Screen Resolution - measure of number of pixels on a screen (m by n)
- m - Horizontal screen resolution
- n - Vertical screen resolution

1.4 Video formats

NTSC - 525x480, 30f/s, interlaced
PAL - 625x480, 25f/s, interlaced
VGA - 640x480, 60f/s, non-interlaced
SVGA - 800x600, 60f/s non-interlaced
RGB - 3 independent video signals and synchronisation signal, vary in resolution and refresh rate
Interlaced - scan every other line at a time, or scan odd and even lines alternatively; the even scan lines are drawn and then the odd scan lines are drawn on the screen to make up one video frame.

##1.5 Raster display

Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs), most “tube” monitors you might see. Used to be very common, but big and bulky.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs), there are two types transmissive (laptops, those snazzy new flat panel monitors) and reflective (wrist watches).

Cathode ray tubes (CRTs)

Heating element on the yolk.

Phosphor coated screen Electrons are boiled off the filament and drawn to the focusing system.

The electrons are focused into a beam and “shot” down the cylinder.

The deflection plates “aim” the electrons to a specific position on the screen.

Strong electrical fields and high voltage
Very good resolution
Heavy, not flat

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs)

Also divided into pixels, but without an electron gun firing at a screen, LCDs have cells that either allow light to flow through, or block it.
Liquid crystal displays use small flat chips which change their transparency properties when a voltage is applied.
LCD elements are arranged in an n x m array called the LCD matrix.
The level of voltage controls grey levels.
LCDs elements do not emit light; use backlights behind the LCD matrix.
Colour is obtained by placing filters in front of each LCD element.
Image quality dependent on viewing angle.

Advantages of LCDs

Flat
Light weight
Low power consumption

1.6 OpenGL

First introduced in 1992.
The OpenGL graphics system is a software interface to graphics hardware (GL stands for Graphics Library).
For interactive programs that produce colour images of moving three-dimensional objects.
It consists of over 200 distinct commands that you can use to specify the objects and operations needed to produce interactive three-dimensional applications.
OpenGL is designed as a streamlined, hardware-independent interface to be implemented on many different hardware platforms.
Similarly, OpenGL does not provide high-level commands for describing models of three-dimensional objects.
With OpenGL, you must build up your desired model from a small set of geometric primitives - points, lines, and polygons.
With OpenGL, you can control computer-graphics technology to produce realistic pictures or ones that depart from reality in imaginative ways.
OpenGL has become the industry standard for graphics applications and games.

#2.

2.1 Graphics Primitives

Points
Lines
Polygons

Geometric primitives – polygons and triangles

The basic graphics primitives are points, lines and polygons
- A polygon can be defined by an ordered set of vertices
Graphics hardware is optimised for processing points and flat polygons
Complex objects are eventually divided into triangular polygons (a process called tessellation)
- Because triangular polygons are always flat

2.2 Line Algorithms

2.2.1 Digital Differential Analyser (DDA)

y = mx + b

m = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1) = ∆y / ∆x

∆y = m∆x

As we move along x by incrementing x, ∆x = 1, so ∆y = m

//When 0 ≤ |m| ≤ 1
int x;
float y=y1;
for(x=x1; x<=x2; x++){
write_pixel(x, round(y), line_color);
y+=m;
}

//When |m| > 1, we swap the roles of x and y(∆y = m∆x so ∆x = ∆y/m = 1/m).
int y;
float x=x1;
for(y=y1; y<=y2; y++){
write_pixel(y, round(x), line_color);
x+=1/m;
}

2.2.2 The Bresenham line algorithm

The Bresenham algorithm is another incremental scan conversion algorithm.
It is accurate and efficient.
Its big advantage is that it uses only integer calculations (unlike DDA which requires float-point additions).
The calculation of each successive pixel requires only an addition and a sign test.
It is so efficient that it has been incorporated as a single instruction on graphics chips.

2.2.3 Generation of circles

2.2.4 Scan conversion

Also called rasterization.
The 3D to 2D projection gives us 2D vertices (points) to define 2D graphic primitives.
We need to fill in the interior
- the rasterizer must determine which pixels in the framebuffer are inside the polygon.

2.3 Polygon Fill

Rasterize edges into framebuffer.
Find a seed pixel inside the polygon.
Visit neighbours recursively and colour if they are not edge pixels.
When vertices lie on the scanlines, cases (a) and (b) must be treated differently when using odd-even fill definition
- Case (a): zero or two crossings
- Case (b): one edge crossing

2.4 Graphics Primitives with OpenGL

glBegin(parameters)

GL_POINTS: individual points
GL_LINES: pairs of vertices interpreted as individual line segments
GL_LINE_STRIP: series of connected line segments
GL_LINE_LOOP: same as above, with a segment added between last and first vertices
GL_TRIANGLES: triples of vertices interpreted as triangles
GL_TRIANGLE_STRIP: linked strip of triangles
GL_TRIANGLE_FAN: linked fan of triangles
GL_QUADS: quadruples of vertices interpreted as four-sided polygons
GL_QUAD_STRIP: linked strip of quadrilaterals
GL_POLYGON: boundary of a simple, convex polygon

3. Transformation Pipeline and Geometric Transformations

3.1 Transformation pipeline

Modelling Transformation - to place an object into the Virtual World.
Viewing Transformation - to view the object from a different vantage point in the virtual world.
Projection Transformation - to see depth in the object.
Viewport Transformation - to temporarily map the volume defined by the “window of interest” plus the front and rear clipping planes into a unit cube. When this is the case, certain other operations are easier to perform.
Device Transformation - to map the user defined “window of interest” (in the virtual world) to the dimensions of the display area

3.2 Types of geometric transformation

3.2.1 2D translation

$\mathbf{P}=\left[\begin{array}{l} x \\ y \end{array}\right], \quad \mathbf{P}^{\prime}=\left[\begin{array}{l} x^{\prime} \\ y^{\prime} \end{array}\right], \quad \mathbf{T}=\left[\begin{array}{l} t_{x} \\ t_{y} \end{array}\right]$

$\mathbf{P}^{\prime}=\mathbf{P}+\mathbf{T} \quad \text { or } \quad\left[\begin{array}{l} x^{\prime} \\ y^{\prime} \end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{l} x \\ y \end{array}\right]+\left[\begin{array}{l} t_{x} \\ t_{y} \end{array}\right]$

3.2.2 2D rotation

$\begin{aligned}&\mathbf{P}^{\prime}=\mathbf{R}\cdot\mathbf{P}\\&\mathbf{R}=\begin{bmatrix}\cos\theta&-\sin\theta\\\sin\theta&\cos\theta\end{bmatrix}\quad\mathbf{so}\quad\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cos\theta&-\sin\theta\\\sin\theta&\cos\theta\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\end{bmatrix}\end{aligned}$

where θ is the rotation angle and φ is the angle between the x-axis and the line from the origin to (x, y).

Notice that the rotation point (or pivot point) is the coordinate origin.

Rotation about a fixed point rather than the origin

Move the fixed point to the origin
Rotate the object
Move the fixed point back to its initial position
M = T(pf ) R(θ) T(-pf )

3.2.3 2D scaling

When an object is scaled, both the size and location change.

$\begin{aligned}&\begin{cases}x^{\prime}=x\cdot s_x\\y^{\prime}=y\cdot s_y&\end{cases}\\\\&\mathbf{P}^{\prime}=\mathbf{S}\cdot\mathbf{P}\quad\mathrm{so}\quad\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}s_x&\mathbf{0}\\\mathbf{0}&s_y\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\end{bmatrix}\end{aligned}$

where P, and P’ are the original and new positions, and $s_x$ and $s_y $are the scaling factors along the x- and y-axes.

3.2.4 2D reflection

Special case of scaling - corresponding to negative scale factors.

3.2.5 2D shearing

Equivalent to pulling faces in opposite directions.

$\begin{aligned}x’&=x+y\cot\theta\\y’&=y\\z’&=z\end{aligned}$

$\begin{bmatrix}x′\\y′\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}1&\cot\theta\\0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\end{bmatrix}$

3.2.6 2D homogeneous co-ordinates

By expanding the 2x2 matrices to 3x3 matrices, homogeneous co-ordinates are used.
A homogeneous parameter is applied so that each 2D position is represented with homogeneous co-ordinates (h·x, h·y, h).
The homogeneous parameter has a non-zero value, and can be set to 1 for convenient use.

3.2.7 2D homogeneous matrices

$\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}1&0&t_x\\0&1&t_y\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\1\end{bmatrix}\quad\text{(2D translation)}$

$\begin{bmatrix}x’\\y’\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cos\theta&-\sin\theta&0\\\sin\theta&\cos\theta&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\1\end{bmatrix}\quad\text{(2D rotation)}$

$\begin{aligned}&\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}s_x&0&0\\0&s_y&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\1\end{bmatrix}\quad\text{(2D scaling)}\\\\&\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}1&\cot\theta&0\\0&1&0\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\1\end{bmatrix}\quad\text{(2D shearing)}\end{aligned}$

3.2.8 2D composite transformation

$\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}rs_{xx}&rs_{xy}&trs_{x}\\rs_{yx}&rs_{yy}&trs_{y}\\0&0&1\end{bmatrix}\cdotp\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\1\end{bmatrix}$

where elements rs are the multiplicative rotation-scaling terms in the transformation (which involve only rotation angles and scaling factors);

elements trs are the translation terms, containing combination of translation distances, pivot-point and fixedpoint co-ordinates, rotation angles and scaling parameters.

"rs"元素是指变换中的乘法旋转-缩放项，这些项只涉及旋转角度和缩放因子。

"trs"元素是指变换中的平移项，其中包括了平移距离、旋转角度、缩放参数以及轴心点和固定点坐标的组合。

3.3 3D translation

3D translations and scaling can be simply extended from the corresponding 2D methods.

$\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\z^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&t_x\\0&1&0&t_y\\0&0&1&t_z\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\\1\end{bmatrix}$

3.3.1 3D co-ordinate axis rotations

The extension from 2D rotation methods to 3D rotation is less straightforward (because this is about an arbitrary axis instead of an arbitrary point).
Equivalent to rotation in two dimensions in planes of constant z (i.e. about the origin).

$\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\z^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cos\theta&-\sin\theta&0&0\\\sin\theta&\cos\theta&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\\1\end{bmatrix}\quad\quad\quad(\textsf{About }z\text{-axis})$

$\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\z^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cos\theta&0&\sin\theta&0\\0&1&0&0\\-\sin\theta&0&\cos\theta&0\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\\z\\1\end{bmatrix}\quad\quad\quad(\textsf{About y-axis})$

$\begin{bmatrix}x^{\prime}\\y^{\prime}\\z^{\prime}\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0\\0&\cos\theta&-\sin\theta&0\\0&\sin\theta&\cos\theta&0\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\\z\\1\end{bmatrix}\quad\quad\quad\text{(About x-axis)}$

3.3.2 General rotation about the origin

A rotation by q about an arbitrary axis can be decomposed into the concatenation of rotations about the x, y, and z axes.

$\mathbf{R(q)=R_z(q_z)~R_y(q_y)~R_x(q_x)}$

$\mathrm{~where~}q_x,q_y\mathrm{~and~}q_z\text{are called the Euler angles}.$

Note that rotations do not commute though we can use rotations in another order but with different angles.

3.3.3 3D scaling

$\begin{aligned}&\begin{array}{c}x’=s_xx\\y’=s_y’\\z’=s_zz\end{array}\\\\&\begin{bmatrix}x’\\y’\\z’\\1\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}s_x&0&0&0\\0&s_y&0&0\\0&0&s_z&0\\0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}.\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\\1\end{bmatrix}\end{aligned}$

3.3.4 3D composite transformation

As with 2D transformation, a composite 3D transformation can be formed by multiplying the matrix representations for the individual operations in the transformation sequence.
There are further forms of transformation, namely reflection and shearing which can be implemented with the other three transformations.
Translation, scaling, rotation, reflection and shearing are all affine transformations in that transformed point P’(x’ ,y’ ,z’) is a linear combination of the original point P(x,y,z).
Matrix multiplication is associative

M3⋅M2⋅M1 = (M3⋅M2)⋅M1 = M3⋅(M2⋅M1)
Transformation products are not always commutative

A⋅B ≠ B⋅A

3.3.5 Instancing

In modelling, we often start with a simple object centred at the origin, oriented with an axis, and of a standard size.
We apply an instance transformation to its vertices to
- Scale
- Orient
- Locate