Process Control Instrumentation Technology (Chapter 6)

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6.9 A CdS cell has a time constant of 73 ms and a dark resistance of 150 $\mathbf{k \Omega}$ . A light pulse that is only $\mathbf{20 \mathrm{~ms}}$ in length strikes the cell. If the intensity of the light pulse is such that the final resistance would be $\mathbf{45 \mathrm{k} \Omega}$ , plot the resistance versus time for $\mathbf{100 \mathrm{~ms}}$ . What is the resistance at $\mathbf{20 \mathrm{~ms} }$ ?

$\because R(t)=R_{i}+\left(R_{f}-R_{i}\right)\left[1-e^{-t / \tau}\right]$

$\therefore R(t)=150+(45-150)\left[1-\mathrm{e}^{-t / 73}\right]$

$R(20 \mathrm{~ms})=150-105\left[1-\mathrm{e}^{-20 / 73}\right]=124.8k\Omega$

After the pulse passes the resistance will begin to grow exponentially as,

$R(t)=124.8+(150-124.8)\left[1-\mathrm{e}^{-(-20) / 73}\right]$

The following figure shows the variation in resistance as the pulse passes.

6.11 The photoconductive cell in Figure 6.9 is used to measure distance from a stable source of $\mathbf{ 0.5-\mu \mathrm{m}}$ wavelength radiation. The source has $\mathbf{75 \mathrm{~mW}}$ of power, $\mathbf{ 2 \mathrm{mr}}$ divergence, and a 0.5-cm exit radius. Construct a graph of sensor resistance versus distance from 0 to 2.5 m.

$\because I_S=P/A=P/(\pi R^2);\;R=r+x\tan \theta$

$\therefore I_{S}=23.87 /(0.5+0.002 x)^{2} \mathrm{~mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2}$

x	0	25	50	75	100	125	150	175	200	225	250
$I_S$	95.5	78.9	66	56.5	48.7	42.4	37.3	33.0	20.5	26.4	23.87
R	0.6	0.8	1.1	1.4	1.6	1.8	2.0	2.2	2.3	2.5	2.7

6.12 Design a system using the photoconductive cell in Figure 6.9 to measure and display light intensity. Make the design such that 20 to $\mathbf{100 \mathrm{~mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2}}$ produces an output of 0.2 to 1.0 V . What is the readout error when the intensity is $\mathbf{60 \mathrm{~mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2} }$ ?

$\because V_{\text {out }}=m R_{C}+V_{0}$

$\begin{array}{l} 1.0=m(0.5 \mathrm{k} \Omega)+V_{0} \\ 0.2=m(2.9 \mathrm{k} \Omega)+V_{0} \end{array}$

$\therefore V_{\text {out }}=-0.33 R_{C}+1.167$

when light intensity is $60mW/cm^2$ , the resistance is 1.25 $k\Omega$ , and the $V_{out}$ is 0.75V.

6.13 A silicon photovoltaic cell is employed in the circuit shown in Figure 6.35. The cell has an internal resistance of $\mathbf{65 \Omega}$ . A light pulse of 20-ms duration and $\mathbf{2 \mathrm{~W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}}$ intensity strikes the detector. Sketch the output voltage versus time, and find the maximum voltage produced. The cell calibration voltage is $\mathbf{ V_{0}=0.60 \mathrm{~V} }$ .

$V=V_{d} \ln \left(1+I_{L}\right)=0.6 \ln (1+2)=0.659 \mathrm{~V}$

$V_{c}=0.659(100 / 165)=0.399 \mathrm{~V} \approx 0.4 \mathrm{~V}$

$V_{o u t}=-\frac{1}{(10 \mathrm{k} \Omega)(1 \mu \mathrm{F})} \int(-0.4) d t=40t\,V$

Because the output rises at 40V/S during the 20ms pulse, zhe maximum output is 0.8V at 20ms.

6.16 The phototransistor in Figure 6.20 is used in the circuit of Figure 6.36. Calculate the output voltage versus light intensity from 10 to $\mathbf{40 \mathrm{~W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}}$ .

$\because V_{\text {out }}=-500(10 / 110) l_{c}=-45.45 l_{c}$

The following plot shows how the voltage varies with light intensity.

6.17 Devise a system by which the phototransistor in Figure 6.20 can trigger a comparator when the light intensity rises above $\mathbf{20 \mathrm{~W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}}$ .

We use the phototransistor in a circuit like Figure 6.19 to obtain a voltage which varies with light intensity. In fact from Example 6.10, with $R_{c}=500 \Omega$ and a 14 volt supply we find that a $20 \mathrm{mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2}$ intensity produces a voltage of 10 volts from the load line of Figure 6.20 . Therefore we need a comparator with a 10 volt trigger, but note that the voltage decreases with increasing light intensity. This means that the +10 V must be on the + terminal of the comparator. So when it is dark the phototransistor voltage is large and the comparator output is low. As the intensity increases the phototransistor voltage drops until, below 10 V , the comparator goes high. The following circuit will satisfy this need.

6.22 For the turbidity system in Figure 6.34, two matched photoconductive cells are used with R vs. $\mathbf{I_{L}}$ as given in Figure 6.37. Design a signal-conditioning system that outputs the deviation of the flowing system turbidity in volts and triggers an alarm if the intensity is reduced by 10 \% from the nominal of $\mathbf{15 \mathrm{~mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2}}$ .

There are many ways to do this. The most straight forward is to use dividers to convert the photocell resistance changes to voltages, find the difference and trigger a comparator if the difference exceeds a value for a 10% intensity reduction.
The graph of resistance versus intensity shows that the resistance at $15 \mathrm{~mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2}$ is about $3.6 \mathrm{k} \Omega$ . A 10% reduction to $13.5 \mathrm{~mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2}$ results in an increase of resistance to about $4.4 \mathrm{k} \Omega$ .
We simply pick divider resistance shown in the circuit below, $R_{1}$ and $R_{2}$ , to be $20 \mathrm{k} \Omega$ each. Any other reasonable value could be used. At the nominal intensity of $15 \mathrm{~mW} / \mathrm{cm}^{2}$ the two divider voltages will be the same,

$V_{1}=V_{2}=(15)(3.6) /(20+3.6)=2.288 \mathrm{~V}$

The differential amplifier output will be zero and the alarm comparator is not triggered.
If the flow intensity reduces there will be a differential amplifier output to indicate this. If it changes by 10% then that divider voltage will increase to,

$V_{2}=(15)(4.4) /(20+4.4)=2.705 \mathrm{~V}$

so that the voltage difference is $\Delta V=0.417 \mathrm{~V}$ . If we pick the comparator trigger voltage to be 5 volts, then the differential amplifier must have a gain of,