教育的本质

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What is pedagogy? A definition and discussion 什么是教育学？定义和讨论

Pedagogy is often, wrongly, seen as ‘the art and science of teaching’. Mark K. Smith explores the origins and development of pedagogy and finds a different story – accompanying people on their journeys. Teaching is just one part of what they do. 教育学经常被错误地视为 “教学的艺术和科学”。马克・史密斯（Mark K. Smith）探索了教育学的起源和发展，并发现了一个不同的故事 —— 陪伴人们踏上他们的旅程。教学只是他们工作的一部分。

A definition for starters: 初学者的定义：

Pedagogy is a way of being and interacting that involves: 教育学是一种存在和互动的方式，涉及：

####・joining with others to bring flourishing and relationship to life (animation)・与他人一起，将繁荣和关系带入生活（动画）

####・being concerned about their, and other’s, needs and wellbeing, and taking practical steps to help (caring);・关心自己和他人的需求和福祉，并采取切实可行的步骤提供帮助（关怀）;

and

####・encouraging reflection, commitment and change (education).・鼓励反思、承诺和变革（教育）。

Introduction 介绍

In recent years interest has grown in ‘pedagogy’ within English-language discussions of education. The impetus has come from different directions. There have been those like Paulo Freire seeking a ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’ or ‘critical pedagogy’; practitioners wanting to rework the boundaries of care and education via the idea of social pedagogy; and, perhaps most significantly, governments wanting to constrain the activities of teachers by requiring adherence to preferred ‘pedagogies’.
近年来，人们对英语教育讨论中的 “教育学” 的兴趣日益浓厚。推动力来自不同的方向。像保罗・弗莱雷（Paulo Freire）这样的人寻求 “被压迫者的教育学” 或 “批判教育学”; 希望通过社会教育学的思想重新定义护理和教育界限的从业者；而且，也许最重要的是，政府希望通过要求遵守首选的 “教学法” 来限制教师的活动。

A common way of approaching pedagogy is as the art and science (and maybe even craft) of teaching. As we will see, viewing pedagogy in this way both fails to honour the historical experience, and to connect crucial areas of theory and practice. Here we suggest that a good way of exploring pedagogy is as the process of accompanying learners; caring for and about them; and bringing learning into life.
处理教学法的一种常见方式是将教学的艺术和科学（甚至可能是工艺）作为教学。正如我们将看到的，以这种方式看待教育学既不能尊重历史经验，又不能将理论和实践的关键领域联系起来。在这里，我们建议探索教学法的一个好方法是陪伴学习者的过程；关心他们和关心他们；将学习带入生活。

The nature of education 教育的本质

Our starting point here is with the nature of education. Unfortunately, it is easy to confuse education with schooling. Many think of places like schools or colleges when seeing or hearing the word. They might also look to particular jobs like teacher or tutor. The problem with this is that while looking to help people learn, the way a lot of teachers work isn’t necessarily something we can properly call education.
我们的出发点是教育的本质。不幸的是，人们很容易将教育与学校教育混为一谈。许多人在看到或听到这个词时会想到学校或学院等地方。他们也可能寻找特定的工作，如教师或辅导员。这样做的问题是，虽然希望帮助人们学习，但许多教师的工作方式并不一定是我们可以恰当地称为教育的东西。

Often teachers fall or are pushed, into ‘schooling’ – trying to drill learning into people according to some plan often drawn up by others. Paulo Freire (1972) famously called this ‘banking’ – making deposits of knowledge. It can quickly descend into treating learners like objects, things to be acted upon rather than people to be related to. In contrast, to call ourselves ‘educators’ we need to look to acting with people rather on them.
教师常常陷入或被迫进入“学校教育”的状态——试图按照他人制定的某种计划将知识灌输给学生。保罗·弗雷雷（Paulo Freire）在1972 年著名地称之为“储蓄”——将知识作为存款进行注入。这种方式很快会演变为把学习者视为物体，成为被施加影响的对象，而不是应当建立关系的人。相对而言，作为“教育者”，我们需要关注与人们共同参与，而不是单方面施加影响。

Education is a deliberate process of drawing out learning (educere), of encouraging and giving time to discovery. It is an intentional act. At the same time, it is, as John Dewey (1963) put it, a social process – ‘a process of living and not a preparation for future living’. As well being concerned with learning that we set out to encourage – a process of inviting truth and possibility – it is also based on certain values and commitments such as respect for others and for truth. Education is born, it could be argued, of the hope and desire that all may share in life and ‘be more’.
教育是一个深思熟虑的过程，它激发学习（educere），鼓励和给予发现时间。这是一种故意行为。与此同时，正如约翰・杜威（John Dewey，1963）所说，它是一个社会过程 ——“一个生活的过程，而不是为未来生活做准备”。除了关注我们开始鼓励的学习 —— 一个邀请真理和可能性的过程 —— 它还基于某些价值观和承诺，例如对他人和真理的尊重。可以说，教育诞生于所有人在生活中可能分享的希望和愿望，并 “成为更多人”。

For many concerned with education, it is also a matter of grace and wholeness, wherein we engage fully with the gifts we have been given. As Pestalozzi constantly affirmed, education is rooted in human nature; it is a matter of head, hand and heart (Brühlmeier 2010). We find identity, meaning, and purpose in life ‘through connections to the community, to the natural world, and to spiritual values such as compassion and peace’ (Miller 2000).
对于许多关心教育的人来说，这也是一个恩典和整体的问题，在这个问题上，我们完全参与到我们所得到的礼物中。正如裴斯泰洛齐不断申明的那样，教育植根于人性；这是一个头脑，手和心灵的问题（Brühlmeier 2010）。我们 “通过与社区、自然世界以及同情与和平等精神价值的联系” 在生活中找到身份、意义和目的（Miller 2000）。

To educate is, in short, to set out to create and sustain informed, hopeful and respectful environments where learning can flourish. It is concerned not just with ‘knowing about’ things, but also with changing ourselves and the world we live in. As such education is a deeply practical activity – something that we can do for ourselves (what we could call self-education), and with others. This is a process carried out by parents and carers, friends and colleagues, and specialist educators.
简而言之，教育就是着手创造和维持知情、充满希望和尊重的环境，使学习能够蓬勃发展。它不仅关注 “了解” 事物，还关注改变我们自己和我们生活的世界。因此，教育是一项非常实用的活动 —— 我们可以为自己（我们可以称之为自我教育）和他人做的事情。这是一个由父母和照顾者、朋友和同事以及专业教育工作者进行的过程。

It is to the emergence of the last of these in ancient Greece that we will now turn as they have become so much a part of the way we think about, and get confused by, the nature of pedagogy.
我们现在将转向古希腊中的最后一种的出现，因为它们已经成为我们思考教育学本质的一部分，并被教育学的本质所迷惑。

Pedagogues and teachers in ancient Greek society 古希腊社会的教育家和教师

Within ancient Greek society, there was a strong distinction between the activities of pedagogues (paidagögus) and subject teachers (didáskalos). The first pedagogues were slaves – often foreigners and the ‘spoils of war’ (Young 1987). They were trusted and sometimes learned members of rich households who accompanied the sons of their ‘masters’ in the street, oversaw their meals etc., and sat beside them when being schooled. These pedagogues were generally seen as representatives of their wards’ fathers and literally ‘tenders’ of children (pais plus agögos, a ‘child-tender’). Children were often put in their charge at around 7 years and remained with them until late adolescence.
在古希腊社会中，教育者（paidagögus）和学科教师（didáskalos）的活动之间存在着强烈的区别。最早的教育者是奴隶 —— 通常是外国人和 “战利品”（Young 1987）。他们是受信任的，有时甚至是博学的富裕家庭成员，他们陪伴他们的 “主人” 的儿子在街上，监督他们的饮食等，并在他们上学时坐在他们旁边。这些教育者通常被视为他们病房父亲的代表，字面意思是孩子的 “温柔者”（pais plus agögos，意为 “儿童温柔者”）。儿童通常在 7 岁左右由他们负责，并一直陪伴他们直到青春期晚期。

The roles and relationships of pedagogues 教育工作者的角色和关系

Plato talks about pedagogues as ‘men who by age and experience are qualified to serve as both leaders (hëgemonas) and custodians (paidagögous)’ of children (Longenecker 1983: 53). Their role varied but two elements were common (Smith 2006). The first was to be an accompanist or companion – carrying books and bags, and ensuring their wards were safe. The second and more fundamental task concerning boys was to help them learn what it was to be men. This they did by a combination of example, conversation and disciplining. Pedagogues were moral guides who were to be obeyed (Young 1987: 156)
柏拉图将教育家称为 “根据年龄和经验有资格担任儿童的领导者（hëgemonas）和监护人（paidagögous）的人”（Longenecker 1983：53）。他们的角色各不相同，但有两个因素是共同的（Smith 2006）。首先是成为陪伴者或同伴 —— 携带书籍和书包，并确保他们的病房安全。关于男孩的第二个也是更基本的任务是帮助他们了解什么是男人。他们通过榜样、对话和纪律的结合来做到这一点。教育者是应该被服从的道德指南（Young 1987：156）

The pedagogue was responsible for every aspect of the child’s upbringing from correcting grammar and diction to controlling his or her sexual morals. Reciting a pedagogue’s advice, Seneca said, “Walk thus and so; eat thus and so, this is the proper conduct for a man and that for a woman; this for a married man and that for a bachelor’. (Smith 2006: 201)
教育者负责儿童成长的各个方面，从纠正语法和用词到控制他或她的性道德。塞涅卡背诵了一位教育家的忠告，他说：“走这样走；这样吃，这是男人的正确行为，也是女人的正确行为；这是给已婚男人的，也是给单身汉的。（史密斯 2006：201）

Employing a pedagogue was a custom that went far beyond Greek society. Well-to-do Romans and some Jews placed their children in the care and oversight of trusted slaves. As Young (1987) notes, it was a continuous (and ever-widening) practice from the fifth century B.C. until late into imperial times (quoted in Smith 2006). He further reports that brothers sometimes shared one pedagogue in Greek society. In contrast, in Roman society, there were often several pedagogues in each family, including female overseers for girls. This tradition of accompanying and bag carrying could still be found in more recent systems of slavery such as that found in the United States – as Booker T Washington recounted in his autobiography Up from Slavery (1963).
雇用教育家是一种习俗，远远超出了希腊社会。富裕的罗马人和一些犹太人将他们的孩子交给值得信赖的奴隶照顾和监督。正如 Young（1987）所指出的，从公元前五世纪到帝国时代晚期，这是一种持续（并且不断扩大）的做法（引自 Smith 2006）。他进一步报告说，在希腊社会中，弟兄们有时共享一个教育家。相比之下，在罗马社会，每个家庭中通常都有几名教育者，包括女孩的女监督。这种陪伴和提包的传统仍然可以在最近的奴隶制中找到，例如在美国发现的奴隶制 —— 正如布克・华盛顿在他的自传《摆脱奴隶制》（1963）中所叙述的那样。

The relation of the pedagogue to the child is a fascinating one. It brings new meaning to Friere’s (1972) notion of the ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’ – this was the education of the privileged by the oppressed. It was a matter that, according to Plato, did not go unnoticed by Socrates. In a conversation between Socrates and a young boy Lysis, Socrates asked, ‘Someone controls you?’ Lysis replied, ‘Yes, he is my tutor [or pedagogue] here.’ ‘Is he a slave?’ Socrates queried. ‘Why, certainly; he belongs to us,’ responded Lysis, to which Socrates mused, ‘What a strange thing, I exclaimed; a free person controlled by a slave!’ (Plato 1925, quoted by Smith 2006).
教育者与孩子的关系是一个引人入胜的关系。它为 Friere（1972）的 “被压迫者的教育学” 概念带来了新的含义 —— 这是被压迫者对特权者的教育。根据柏拉图的说法，苏格拉底并没有忽视这个问题。在苏格拉底和一个小男孩吕西斯的对话中，苏格拉底问道：“有人控制你吗？吕西斯回答说：“是的，他是我在这里的导师。“他是奴隶吗？” 苏格拉底问道。“为什么，当然；他属于我们，“吕西斯回答说，苏格拉底沉思道，” 真是一件奇怪的事情，我惊呼道；一个被奴隶控制的自由人！（柏拉图 1925 年，斯密 2006 年引用）。

Pedagogues and teachers 教育工作者和教师

Moral supervision by the pedagogue (paidagogos) was significant in terms of status
教育者（paidagogos）的道德监督在地位方面具有重要意义

He was more important than the schoolmaster because the latter only taught a boy his letters, but the paidagogos taught him how to behave, a much more important matter in the eyes of his parents. He was, moreover, even if a slave, a member of the household, in touch with its ways and with the father’s authority and views. The schoolmaster had no such close contact with his pupils. (Castle 1961: 63-4)
他比校长更重要，因为校长只教一个男孩字母，但 paidagogos 教他如何做人，在他父母眼里，这是一件更重要的事情。此外，即使他是一个奴隶，他也是家庭的一员，与家庭的方式以及父亲的权威和观点有联系。校长没有与他的学生如此密切的接触。（城堡 1961： 63-4）

However, because both pedagogues and teachers were of relatively low status they were could be disrespected by the boys. There was a catch here. As the authority and position of pedagogues flowed from the head of the household, and their focus was more on life than ‘letters’, they had advantages over teachers (didáskalos).
然而，由于教育家和教师的地位都相对较低，男孩们可能会不尊重他们。这里有一个问题。由于教育家的权威和地位来自一家之主，他们的关注点更多地集中在生活而不是 “信件” 上，因此他们比教师（didáskalos）更有优势。

The distinction between teachers and pedagogues, instruction and guidance, and education for school or life was a feature of discussions around education for many centuries. It was still around when Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) explored education. In On Pedagogy (Über Pädagogik) first published in 1803, he talked as follows:
教师与教育者、教学与指导、学校教育或生活教育之间的区别是许多世纪以来围绕教育进行讨论的一个特点。当伊曼纽尔・康德（1724-1804）探索教育时，它仍然存在。在 1803 年首次出版的《论教育学》（Über Pädagogik）中，他谈到了以下内容：

Education includes the nurture of the child and, as it grows, its culture. The latter is firstly negative, consisting of discipline; that is, merely the correcting of faults. Secondly, culture is positive, consisting of instruction and guidance (and thus forming part of education). Guidance means directing the pupil in putting into practice what he has been taught. Hence the difference between a private teacher who merely instructs, and a tutor or governor who guides and directs his pupil. The one trains for school only, the other for life. (Kant 1900: 23-4)
教育包括对儿童的培养，以及随着儿童的成长而培养儿童的文化。后者首先是消极的，包括纪律；也就是说，仅仅是纠正错误。其次，文化是积极的，包括指导和指导（因此构成了教育的一部分）。指导意味着指导学生将他所教的内容付诸实践。因此，仅仅指导的私人教师与指导和指导学生的导师或州长之间的区别。一个只为学校而训练，另一个为生活而训练。（康德 1900：23-4）

The question we need to ask, then, is how did ‘pedagogy’ become focused on teaching?
那么，我们需要问的问题是，“教育学” 是如何专注于教学的？

The growing focus on teaching 对教学的日益关注

In Europe, concern with the process and content of teaching and instruction developed significantly in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It was, however, part of a movement that dated from 300-400 years earlier. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries we see, for example:
在欧洲，对教学过程和内容的关注在 16 世纪和 17 世纪有了显着发展。然而，它是 300-400 年前运动的一部分。例如，在十六世纪和十七世纪，我们看到：

A growing literature about instruction, and method, aimed at schoolteachers.
越来越多的关于教学和方法的文献，针对学校教师。
The grouping together of different areas of knowledge in syllabi which set out what was to be instructed.
在教学大纲中将不同领域的知识组合在一起，规定了要指导的内容。
A focus on the organisation, and development, of schools (Hamilton 1999: 138).
关注学校的组织和发展（汉密尔顿 1999：138）。

There was a ‘the separation of the activity of “teaching” from the activity of defining “that which is taught” (ibid: 139). This led in much of continental Europe to a growing interest in the process of teaching and the gathering together of examples, guidance and knowledge in the form of what became known as didactics.
“将 ’ 教导 ’ 的活动与定义 ’ 所教导的 ’ 的活动分开了”（同上：139）。这导致欧洲大陆的大部分地区对教学过程越来越感兴趣，并以后来被称为教学法的形式收集例子、指导和知识。

Didactics 教学法

One of the important landmarks here was the publication of John Amos Comenius’s book The Great Didactic [Didactica Magna] (first published in Czech in 1648, Latin in 1657 and English in 1896). For Comenius,
这里的一个重要里程碑是约翰・阿莫斯・夸美纽斯（John Amos Comenius）的《伟大的教学法》（The Great Didactic [Didactica Magna]）的出版（1648 年首次以捷克语出版，1657 年以拉丁文出版，1896 年以英语出版）。对于夸美纽斯来说，

the fundamental aims of education generate the basic principle of Didactica Magna, omnis, omnia, omnino – to teach everything to everybody thoroughly, in the best possible way, Comenius believed that every human being should strive for perfection in all that is fundamental for life and do this as thoroughly as possible…. Every person must strive to become (l) a rational being, (2) a person who can rule nature and him or herself, and (3) a being mirroring the creator. (Gundem 1992: 53)
教育的根本目标产生了 Didactica Magna 的基本原则，omnis，omnia，omnino—— 以最好的方式彻底地教授每个人的一切，夸美纽斯认为每个人都应该在生活的基本要素上追求完美，并尽可能彻底地做到这一点… 每个人都必须努力成为（l）一个理性的存在，（2）一个能够统治自然和他或她自己的人，以及（3）一个镜像造物主的存在。（Gundem 1992：53）

He developed sets of rules for teaching and set out basic principles. His fundamental conclusions, according to Gundem (1992: 54) remain valid:
他制定了一套教学规则，并制定了基本原则。根据 Gundem（1992：54）的说法，他的基本结论仍然有效：

Teaching must be in accordance with the student’s stage of development…
教学必须根据学生的发展阶段…
All learning happens through the senses…
所有的学习都是通过感官进行的…
One should proceed from the specific to the general, from what is easy to the more difficult, from what is known to the unknown.
一个人应该从具体到一般，从容易到困难，从已知到未知。
Teaching should not cover too many subjects or themes at the same time.
教学不应同时涵盖太多科目或主题。
Teaching should proceed slowly and systematically. Nature makes no jumps. (op. cit.)
教学应该缓慢而系统地进行。大自然不会跳跃。（同前）

Following Kant and Comenius, another significant turning point in thinking about teaching came through the growing influence of one of Kant’ successors in the Chair of Philosophy at Königsberg University: Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841).
继康德和夸美纽斯之后，思考教学的另一个重要转折点来自康德的继任者之一在柯尼斯堡大学哲学系主任的日益增长的影响力：约翰・弗里德里希・赫尔巴特（Johann Friedrich Herbart，1776-1841）。

Theories of teaching 教学理论

As Hamilton (1999: 143) has put it, Herbart sought to devise, from first principles, an educational system and thus worked towards a general theory of pedagogics (see, for example, Allgemeine pädagogik – General Pedagogics, 1806 and Umriss Pädagogischer Vorlesungen, 1835 – Plan of Lectures on Pedagogy and included in Herbart 1908).
正如汉密尔顿（Hamilton，1999：143）所说，赫尔巴特（Herbart）试图从基本原则出发，设计一种教育体系，从而致力于建立教育学的一般理论（例如，参见 Allgemeine pädagogik – General Pedagogics，1806 年和 Umriss Pädagogischer Vorlesungen，1835 – 教育学讲座计划，并包含在 Herbart 1908 年）。

At the centre of his theory of education and of schooling is the idea of ‘educational teaching’ or ‘educating instruction’ (erzieinder Unterricht). Hilgenheger (1993: 651-2) makes the following observations:
他的教育和学校教育理论的核心是 “教育教学” 或 “教育教学”（erzieinder Unterricht）的思想。Hilgenheger（1993：651-2）做出了以下观察：

Like practical and theoretical educationalists before him, Herbart also makes a distinction between education (Latin: educatio) and teaching (Latin: instructio). ‘Education’ means shaping the development of character with a view to the improvement of man. ‘Teaching’ represents the world, conveys fresh knowledge, develops existing aptitudes and imparts useful skills….
像他之前的实践和理论教育家一样，赫尔巴特也区分了教育（拉丁语：educatio）和教学（拉丁语：instructio）。“教育” 意味着塑造品格的发展，以期提高人的能力。 “教学” 代表世界，传授新鲜知识，发展现有才能，传授有用的技能。

Before Herbart, it was unusual to combine the concepts of ‘education’ and ‘teaching’. Consequently, questions pertaining to education and teaching were initially pursued independently… Herbart… took the bold step of ‘subordinating’ the concept of ‘teaching’ to that of ‘education’ in his educational theory. As he saw it, external influences, such as the punishment or shaming of pupils, were not the most important instruments of education. On the contrary, appropriate teaching was the only sure means of promoting education that was bound to prove successful.
在赫尔巴特之前，将 “教育” 和 “教学” 的概念结合起来是不寻常的。因此，与教育和教学有关的问题最初是独立进行的… 香草… 在他的教育理论中，采取了大胆的举措，将 “教” 的概念 “从属于” 教育 “的概念。在他看来，外部影响，例如对学生的惩罚或羞辱，并不是最重要的教育手段。恰恰相反，适当的教学是促进教育的唯一可靠手段，而这种手段必然会取得成功。

In Herbart’s own words, teaching is the ‘central activity of education’.
用赫尔巴特自己的话来说，教学是 “教育的中心活动”。

What Herbart and his followers achieved with this was to focus consideration of instruction and teaching (didactics) around schooling rather than other educational settings (Gundem 2000: 239-40). Herbart also turned didactics ‘into a discipline of its own’ – extracting it from general educational theory (op. cit.). Simplified and rather rigid versions of his approach grew in influence with the development of mass schooling and state-defined curricula.
赫尔巴特和他的追随者通过这一点取得的成就是将教学和教学（教学法）的考虑集中在学校教育而不是其他教育环境中（Gundem 2000：239-40）。赫尔巴特还将教学法 “变成了一门独立的学科”—— 将其从一般教育理论中提取出来（同前）。随着大规模学校教育和国家规定的课程的发展，他的方法的简化和相当僵化的版本的影响越来越大。

This approach did not go unchallenged at the time. There were those who argued that teaching should become part of the human rather than ‘exact’ sciences (see Hamilton 1999: 145-6). Rather than seeking to construct detailed systems of instruction, the need was to explore the human experience of teaching, learning and schooling. It was through educational practice and reflection upon it (‘learning by doing’) and exploring the settings in which it happens that greater understanding would develop. In Germany, some of those arguing against an over-focus on method and state control of curricula looked to social pedagogy with its focus on community and democracy (see below).
这种方法在当时并非没有受到挑战。有些人认为，教学应该成为人类的一部分，而不是 “精确” 的科学（见汉密尔顿 1999：145-6）。我们需要的不是寻求构建详细的教学系统，而是探索人类在教学、学习和学校教育方面的经验。正是通过教育实践和对它的反思（“边做边学”）和探索它发生的环境，才能形成更深的理解。在德国，一些反对过分关注课程教学方法和国家控制的人将目光投向了社会教育学，其重点是社区和民主（见下文）。

Education as a science 教育是一门科学

These ideas found their way across the channel and into English-language books and manuals about teaching – especially those linked to Herbart. Perhaps the best-known text was Alexander Bain’s Education as a Science (first published in 1879 – and reprinted 16 or more times over the next twenty years). However, its influence was to prove limited. Brian Simon (1981) in an often-cited chapter ‘Why no pedagogy in England?’, argued that with changes in schooling in the latter years of the nineteenth century and growing government intervention there was much less emphasis upon on intellectual growth and much more on containment. In addition the psychology upon which it was based was increasingly called into question. Simon (1981: 1) argued:
这些想法越过英吉利海峡，进入了有关教学的英语书籍和手册中，尤其是那些与赫尔巴特有关的书籍和手册。也许最著名的文本是亚历山大・贝恩（Alexander Bain）的《作为科学的教育》（Education as a Science）（首次出版于 1879 年，并在接下来的二十年中重印了 16 次或更多次）。然而，它的影响被证明是有限的。布莱恩・西蒙（Brian Simon，1981）在经常被引用的《为什么英格兰没有教育法？》一章中指出，随着 19 世纪后期学校教育的变化和政府干预的增加，人们对智力发展的重视大大减少，而对遏制的重视则大大增加。此外，它所依据的心理学越来越受到质疑。Simon（1981：1）认为：

The most striking aspect of current thinking and discussion about education is its eclectic character, reflecting deep confusion of thought, and of aims and purposes, relating to learning and teaching – to pedagogy.
当前关于教育的思考和讨论最引人注目的方面是其折衷主义特征，反映了与学习和教学以及教育学有关的思想以及目标和目的的深刻混乱。

As a result, education as a science – and its study – is ‘still less a “science” and has little prestige (ibid.: 2). He continued, ‘The dominant educational institutions of this country have had no concern with theory, its relation to practice, with pedagogy’ (he defined pedagogy as the science of teaching). More recently, educationalists like Robin Alexander (2004: 11) have argued that it is the prominence of the curriculum in English schooling led to pedagogy (as the process of teaching) remaining in a subsidiary position. This was especially so in the arguments around introducing a National Curriculum in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (established in the Education Reform Act 1988) – and the implementation of the curriculum in its first twenty years. The focus was upon ‘delivering’ certain content and testing to see whether it had been retained.
因此，作为一门科学的教育 —— 以及它的研究 ——“更不是一门 ’ 科学 '，几乎没有声望（同上：2）。他继续说，” 这个国家的主要教育机构不关心理论，不关心理论与实践的关系，不关心教学法 “（他将教育学定义为教学科学）。最近，像 Robin Alexander（2004：11）这样的教育家认为，正是课程在英语学校教育中的突出地位导致教育学（作为教学过程）仍然处于辅助地位。在围绕在英格兰、威尔士和北爱尔兰引入国家课程（根据 1988 年《教育改革法》制定）以及在头二十年实施该课程的争论中尤其如此。重点是 “交付” 某些内容并进行测试，以查看它是否已被保留。

The re-emergence of pedagogy 教育学的重新出现

In continental Europe interest in didactics and pedagogy remained relatively strong and there were significant debates and developments in thinking (see Gundem 2000: 241-59). Relatively little attention was paid to pedagogy in Britain and North America until the 1970s and early 1980s. But this changed.
在欧洲大陆，对教学法和教育学的兴趣仍然相对强烈，并且在思想方面存在着重要的辩论和发展（见 Gundem，2000 年：241-59）。直到 1970 年代和 1980 年代初，英国和北美对教育学的关注相对较少。但这种情况发生了变化。

Writing about pedagogy 关于教育学的写作

Initially, interest in pedagogy was reawakened by the decision of Paulo Freire to name his influential book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (first published in English in 1970). The book became a key reference point on many education programmes in higher education and central to the establishment of explorations around critical pedagogy. It was followed by another pivotal text – Basil Bernstein’s (1971) ‘On the classification and framing of educational knowledge’. He drew upon developments in continental debates. He then placed them in relation to the different degrees of control people had over their lives and educational experience according to their class position and cultures. Later he was to look at messages carried by different pedagogies (Bernstein 1990). Last, we should not forget the influence of Jerome Bruner’s discussion of the culture of education (1996). He argued that teachers need to pay particular attention to the cultural contexts in which they are working and of the need to look to ‘folk theories’ and ‘folk pedagogies’ (Bruner 1996: 44-65). ‘Pedagogy is never innocent’, he wrote, ‘It is a medium that carries its own message’ (op. cit.: 63).
最初，保罗・弗莱雷（Paulo Freire）决定将他颇具影响力的著作命名为《被压迫者的教育学》（1970 年首次以英文出版），从而重新唤起了人们对教育学的兴趣。该书成为高等教育中许多教育计划的关键参考点，对于围绕批判性教学法进行探索至关重要。紧随其后的是另一篇关键文本 —— 巴兹尔・伯恩斯坦（Basil Bernstein，1971）的《关于教育知识的分类和框架》。他借鉴了大陆辩论的进展情况。然后，他根据人们的阶级地位和文化，将它们与人们对自己的生活和教育经历的不同程度的控制联系起来。后来，他研究了不同教学法所携带的信息（Bernstein 1990）。最后，我们不应忘记杰罗姆・布鲁纳（Jerome Bruner）关于教育文化的讨论（1996）的影响。他认为，教师需要特别关注他们所处的文化背景，以及需要关注 “民间理论” 和 “民间教育学”（Bruner 1996：44-65）。他写道：“教育学从来都不是无辜的，” 它是一种承载自己信息的媒介 “（同前：63）。

Pedagogy as a means of control 作为控制手段的教育法

A fundamental element in the growing interest in pedagogy was a shift in government focus in education in England. As well as seeking to control classroom activity via the curriculum there was a movement to increase the monitoring of classroom activity via regular scrutiny by senior leadership teams and a much enhanced Ofsted evaluation schedule for lesson observation (Ofsted 2011; 2012). Key indicators for classroom observation included a variety of learning styles addressed, pace, dialogue, the encouragement of independent learning and so on (Ofsted 2011). A number of popular guides appeared to help teachers on their way – perhaps the best received of which was The Perfect Ofsted Lesson (Beere 2010). While the language sounded progressive, and the practices promoted had merit, the problem was the framework in which it was placed. It was, to use Alexander’s words, ‘pedagogy of compliance’. ‘You may be steeped in educational research and/or the accumulated wisdom of 40 years in the classroom, but unless you defer to all this official material your professional judgements will be ‘uninformed”’ (Alexander 2004: 17)
对教育学的兴趣日益浓厚的一个基本因素是英国政府对教育的关注点的转移。除了寻求通过课程控制课堂活动外，还有一项运动，通过高级领导团队的定期审查来加强对课堂活动的监测，并大大加强了 Ofsted 对课堂观察的评估时间表（Ofsted，2011;2012）。课堂观察的关键指标包括所针对的各种学习方式、节奏、对话、对独立学习的鼓励等（Ofsted，2011）。许多受欢迎的指南似乎可以帮助教师前进 —— 也许其中最受好评的是 The Perfect Ofsted Lesson （Beere 2010）。虽然这种语言听起来很进步，所提倡的做法也有其优点，但问题在于它所处的框架。用亚历山大的话来说，这就是 “合规的教学法”。“你可能沉浸在教育研究和 / 或课堂上 40 年积累的智慧中，但除非你服从所有这些官方材料，否则你的专业判断将是 ’ 不知情的 '”（Alexander 2004：17）

Pedagogy or didactics 教育学或教学法

Unfortunately, the way pedagogy was being defined still looked back to the focus on teaching that Herbart argued for nearly 200 years ago. For example, the now-defunct General Teaching Council for England, described it thus:
不幸的是，教育学的定义方式仍然可以追溯到赫尔巴特在近 200 年前所主张的对教学的关注。例如，现已解散的英格兰总教学委员会（General Teaching Council for England）是这样描述的：

Pedagogy is the stuff of teachers’ daily lives. Put simply it’s about teaching. But we take a broad view of teaching as a complex activity, which encompasses more than just ‘delivering’ education. Another way to explain it is by referring to:
教育学是教师日常生活的一部分。简单地说，就是关于教学。但是，我们从广义的角度来看待教学是一项复杂的活动，它不仅仅包括 “提供” 教育。另一种解释方式是参考：

the art of teaching – the responsive, creative, intuitive part
教学艺术 —— 反应灵敏、创造性、直觉性强的部分
the craft of teaching – skills and practice
教学技巧 —— 技能与实践
the science of teaching – research-informed decision making and the theoretical underpinning.
教学科学 —— 以研究为依据的决策和理论基础。

It is also important to remember that all these are grounded in ethical principles and moral commitment – teaching is never simply an instrumental activity, a question just of technique.
同样重要的是要记住，所有这些都是建立在道德原则和道德承诺的基础上的 —— 教学从来都不仅仅是一种工具性活动，而只是一个技术问题。

While we can welcome the warnings against viewing teaching as an instrumental activity – whether it is satisfactory to describe it as pedagogy is a matter for some debate. Indeed Hamilton (1999) has argued that much of what passes for pedagogy in UK education debates is better understood as didactics. We can see this quickly when looking at the following description of didactics from Künzli (1994 quoted in Gundem 2000: 236).
虽然我们可以欢迎反对将教学视为一种工具性活动的警告，但将其描述为教学法是否令人满意是一个有争议的问题。事实上，汉密尔顿（Hamilton，1999）认为，在英国教育辩论中，大部分被当作教育学的东西，最好被理解为教学法。当查看以下来自 Künzli 的教学法描述时，我们可以很快看到这一点（1994 年，引自 Gundem 2000：236）。

Simplified we may say that the concerns of didactics are: what should be taught and learnt (the content aspect); how to teach and learn (the aspects of transmitting and learning): to what purpose or intention something should he taught and learnt (the goal/aims aspect
简单来说，我们可以说，教学法的关注点是：应该教和学习什么（内容方面）; 如何教和学（传递和学习的方面）：他应该为了什么目的或意图而教授和学习某事（目标 / 目的方面）

Perhaps because the word ‘didactic’ in the English language is associated with dull, ‘jug and mug’ forms of teaching, those wanting to develop schooling tended to avoid using it. Yet, in many respects, key aspects of what is talked about today as pedagogy in the UK and North America is better approached via this continental tradition of didactics.
也许是因为英语中的 “教学” 一词与沉闷的 “水壶和杯子” 教学形式有关，那些想要发展学校教育的人往往避免使用它。然而，在许多方面，今天在英国和北美所谈论的教学法的关键方面可以通过这种大陆的教学传统得到更好的处理。

Pedagogy as accompanying, caring for (and about) and bringing learning to life 教学法陪伴、关心（和关心）并将学习带入生活

A third element in the turn to pedagogy flowed from concerns in social work and youth work in the UK that the needs of many children were not being met by existing forms of practice and provision. Significantly, a number of practitioners and academics looked to models of practice found in continental Europe and Scandinavia and focused, in particular, on the traditions of social pedagogy (see Lorenz 1994; Smith 1999; Cameron 2004 and Cameron and Moss 2011). In Scotland, for example, there was discussion of the ‘Scottish pedagogue’ (after the use of the term ‘Danish pedagogue) (Cohen 2008). In England, various initiatives and discussions emerged around reconceptualising working with children in care as social pedagogy and similarly the activities of youth workers, teachers, mentors and inclusion workers within schools (see, for example, Kyriacou’s work 2010). Significantly, much of this work bypassed the English language discussion of pedagogy – which was probably an advantage in some ways. However, it also missed just how much work in the UK was undertaken by specialist pedagogues drawing upon thinking and practice well-known to social pedagogues but whose identity has been formed around youth work, informal and social education and community learning and development (Smith 1999, 2009).
转向教学法的第三个因素源于英国社会工作和青年工作的担忧，即现有的实践和提供形式没有满足许多儿童的需求。值得注意的是，许多从业者和学者研究了在欧洲大陆和斯堪的纳维亚半岛发现的实践模式，并特别关注社会教育学的传统（见 Lorenz 1994; 史密斯 1999;Cameron 2004 和 Cameron and Moss 2011）。例如，在苏格兰，讨论了 “苏格兰教育家”（在使用 “丹麦教育家” 一词之后）（Cohen 2008）。在英格兰，围绕着将与照料儿童的工作重新概念化为社会教育法以及类似的学校内青年工作者、教师、导师和包容工作者的活动，出现了各种倡议和讨论（例如，参见 Kyriacou 的工作，2010 年）。值得注意的是，这项工作的大部分都绕过了英语中关于教育学的讨论 —— 这可能在某些方面是一个优势。然而，它也忽略了英国有多少工作是由专业教育者承担的，这些教育者借鉴了社会教育家所熟知的思维和实践，但这些教育家的身份是围绕青年工作、非正式和社会教育以及社区学习和发展形成的（Smith 1999,2009）。

If we look to these traditions we are likely to re-appreciate pedagogy. Here I want to suggest that what comes to the fore is a focus on flourishing and of the significance of the person of the pedagogue (Smith and Smith 2008). In addition, three elements things out about the processes of the current generation of specialist pedagogues. First, they are heirs to the ancient Greek process of accompanying. Second, their pedagogy involves a significant amount of helping and caring for. Third, they are engaged in what we can call ‘bringing learning to life’. Woven into those processes are theories and beliefs that we also need to attend to (see Alexander 2000: 541). To reword and add to Robin Alexander (2004: 11) pedagogy can be approached as what we need to know, the skills we need to command, and the commitments we need to live in order to make and justify the many different kinds of decisions needed to be made.
如果我们回顾这些传统，我们可能会重新欣赏教育学。在这里，我想建议的是，突出的是对繁荣和教育者个人重要性的关注（史密斯和史密斯，2008）。此外，关于当前一代专业教育家的过程，有三个要素。首先，他们是古希腊陪伴过程的继承人。其次，他们的教学法涉及大量的帮助和照顾。第三，他们参与了我们可以称之为 “将学习带入生活” 的活动。在这些过程中交织在一起的是我们还需要关注的理论和信念（见 Alexander 2000：541）。为了改写和补充罗宾・亚历山大（Robin Alexander，2004：11），教学法可以被视为我们需要知道的东西，我们需要掌握的技能，以及我们需要生活的承诺，以便做出和证明需要做出的许多不同类型的决定。

A focus on flourishing 专注于蓬勃发展

The first and obvious thing to say is that pedagogues have a fundamentally different focus to subject teachers. Their central concern is with the well-being of those they are among and with. In many respects, as Kerry Young (1999) has argued with regard to youth work, pedagogues are involved for much of the time in an exercise in moral philosophy. Those they are working with are frequently seeking to answer in some way profound questions about themselves and the situations they face. At root these look to how people should live their lives: ‘what is the right way to act in this situation or that; of what does happiness consist for me and for others; how should I to relate to others; what sort of society should I be working for?’ (Smith and Smith 2008: 20). In turn, pedagogues need to have spent some time reflecting themselves upon what might make for flourishing and happiness (in Aristotle’s terms eudaimonia).
首先要说的是，教育者的关注点与学科教师有着根本不同的关注点。他们最关心的是他们所处的人和与他们在一起的人的福祉。在许多方面，正如 Kerry Young（1999）在青年工作方面所论证的那样，教育家在道德哲学的实践中花费了大部分时间。与他们一起工作的人经常寻求以某种方式回答关于他们自己和他们面临的情况的深刻问题。从根本上说，这些着眼于人们应该如何过自己的生活：“在这种情况下或那种情况下，正确的行动方式是什么？对我和他人来说，幸福包括什么；我应该如何与他人相处；我应该为什么样的社会工作？（史密斯和史密斯 2008：20）。反过来，教育家需要花一些时间来反思什么可能带来繁荣和幸福（用亚里士多德的话来说就是 eudaimonia）。

In looking to continental concerns and debates around pedagogy, a number of specialist pedagogues have turned to the work of Pestalozzi and to those concerned with more holistic forms of practice (see, for example, Cameron and Ross 2011). As Brühlmeier (2010: 5) has commented, ‘Pestalozzi has shown that there is more to [education] than attaining prescribed learning outcomes; it is concerned with the whole person, with their physical, mental and psychological development’. Learning is a matter of head, hand and heart. Heart here is a matter of, ‘ spirit– the passions that animate or move us; moral sense or conscience– the values, ideals and attitudes that guide us; and being– the kind of person we are, or wish to be, in the world (Doyle and Smith 1999: 33-4).
在研究大陆围绕教育学的关注和辩论时，许多专业教育家已经转向裴斯泰洛齐的工作以及那些关注更整体实践形式的人（例如，参见 Cameron 和 Ross 2011）。正如 Brühlmeier（2010：5）所评论的那样，“裴斯泰洛齐已经表明，[教育] 不仅仅是达到规定的学习成果；它关注的是整个人，关注他们的身体、心理和心理发展。学习是头脑、手和心灵的问题。这里的心是一个问题，“精神 —— 激励或感动我们的激情；道德感或良心 —— 指导我们的价值观、理想和态度；和成为 —— 我们是或希望成为的那种人，在这个世界上（Doyle 和 Smith 1999：33-4）。

The person of the pedagogue 教育者的人

This is a way of working that is deeply wrapped up with the person of the pedagogue; their disposition toward flourishing, truth and justice (what many with the tradition of social pedagogy call haltung); and their readiness and ability to reflect, make judgements and respond (Smith and Smith 2008: 15). They need to be experienced as people who can be trusted, respected and turned to.
这是一种与教育者的人格深深包裹在一起的工作方式；他们对繁荣、真理和正义的倾向（许多具有社会教育学传统的人称之为 haltung）; 以及他们反思、做出判断和回应的准备和能力（史密斯和史密斯 2008：15）。他们需要被体验为可以被信任、尊重和求助的人。

[W] e are called upon to be wise. We are expected to hold truth dearly, to be sincere and accurate… There is also, usually, an expectation that we have a good understanding of the subjects upon which we are consulted, and that we know something about the way of the world. We are also likely to be approached for learning and counsel if we are seen as people who have the ability to come to sound judgements, and to help others to see how they may act for the best in different situations, and how they should live their lives. (Smith and Smith 2008: 19)
〔我们〕被要求要有智慧。我们被期望深重地持有真理，真诚和准确… 通常，人们还期望我们对所咨询的主题有很好的理解，并且我们对世界的方式有所了解。如果我们被视为有能力做出正确判断的人，并帮助他人了解他们在不同情况下如何采取最佳行动，以及他们应该如何过自己的生活，我们也可能会向他们寻求学习和咨询。（史密斯和史密斯 2008：19）

At one level, the same could be said of a ‘good’ subject teacher in a school. As Palmer (1998: 10) has argued, ‘good teaching cannot be reduced to technique; good teaching comes from the identity and integrity of the teacher’ (emphasis in the original). However, the focus of pedagogues frequently takes them directly into questions around identity and integrity. This then means that their authenticity, and the extent to which they are experienced as wise, are vital considerations.
在某种程度上，学校中的 “好” 学科教师也是如此。正如 Palmer（1998：10）所指出的那样，“好的教学不能归结为技巧；好的教学来自于教师的身份和诚信 “（原文中强调）。然而，教育工作者的关注点经常将他们直接带入关于身份和诚信的问题。这意味着它们的真实性，以及它们在多大程度上被体验为智慧，是至关重要的考虑因素。

Accompanying 伴随

The image of Greek pedagogues walking alongside their charges, or sitting with them in classrooms is a powerful one. It connects directly with the experiences of many care workers, youth workers, support workers and informal educators. They spend a lot of time being part of other people’s lives – sometimes literally walking with them to some appointment or event, or sitting with them in meetings and sessions. They also can be a significant person for someone over a long period of time – going through difficulties and achievements with them. Green and Christian (1998: 21) have described this as accompanying.
希腊教育家们与他们并肩而行，或与他们一起坐在教室里的形象是一个强有力的形象。它与许多护理工作者、青年工作者、支持工作者和非正规教育工作者的经历直接相关。他们花了很多时间成为他人生活的一部分 —— 有时真的与他们一起参加一些约会或活动，或者与他们一起参加会议和会议。在很长一段时间内，他们也可以成为某人的重要人物 —— 与他们一起经历困难和成就。Green 和 Christian（1998：21）将其描述为伴随。

The greatest gift that we can give is to ‘be alongside’ another person. It is in times of crisis or achievement or when we have to manage long-term difficulties that we appreciate the depth and quality of having another person to accompany us. In Western society at the end of the twentieth century this gift has a fairly low profile. Although it is pivotal in establishing good communities its development is often left to chance and given a minor status compared with such things as management structure and formal procedures. It is our opinion that the availability of this sort of quality companionship and support is vital for people to establish and maintain their physical, mental and spiritual health and creativity.
我们能给予的最大礼物就是与另一个人 “并肩”。正是在危机或成就时期，或者当我们必须应对长期困难时，我们才会欣赏有另一个人陪伴我们的深度和质量。在二十世纪末的西方社会，这种礼物的知名度相当低调。尽管它在建立良好社区方面发挥着关键作用，但与管理结构和正式程序等事物相比，它的发展往往被留给机会，并被赋予次要地位。我们认为，这种高质量的陪伴和支持对于人们建立和维持他们的身体、心理和精神健康和创造力至关重要。

It is easy to overlook the sophistication of this relationship and the capacities needed to be ‘alongside another’. It entails ‘being with’ – and this involves attending to the other.
人们很容易忽视这种关系的复杂性以及 “与他人并肩” 所需的能力。它需要 “与人在一起”—— 这涉及到关注他人。

It is our relationship with a young person upon which most of our work, as a practitioner, hinges. And this is a relationship that can ‘develop only when the persons involved pay attention to one another’ (Barry and Connolly 1986: 47). What effective workers with individual young people do is highly skilled work, drawing on, through different stages in the process, a range of diverse roles and capacities. Done well the practitioner moves seamlessly through the stages, but the unifying core is the relationship between young person and the worker. (Collander-Brown 2005: 33)
作为实践者，我们的大部分工作都取决于我们与年轻人的关系。这种关系 “只有当相关人员相互关注时才能发展”（Barry and Connolly 1986：47）。有效的工人和个别年轻人所做的是高技能的工作，在过程的不同阶段利用一系列不同的角色和能力。如果做得好，从业者可以在各个阶段无缝地移动，但统一的核心是年轻人和工人之间的关系。（Collander-Brown 2005：33）

Pedagogues have to be around for people; in places where they are directly available to help, talk and listen. They also have to be there for people: ready to respond to the emergencies of life – little and large (Smith and Smith 2008:18).
教育者必须为人们服务；在他们可以直接提供帮助、交谈和倾听的地方。他们还必须为人们服务：准备好应对生活中的紧急情况 —— 无论大小（史密斯和史密斯 2008：18）。

Caring for and caring about 关心和关心

In recent years our understanding of what is involved in ‘caring’ has been greatly enhanced by the work of Nel Noddings. She distinguishes between caring-for and caring-about. Caring-for involves face-to-face encounters in which one person attends directly to the needs of another. We learn first what it means to be cared-for. ‘Then, gradually, we learn both to care for and, by extension, to care about others’ (Noddings 2002: 22). Such caring-about, Noddings suggests, can be seen as providing the foundation for our sense of justice.
近年来，Nel Noddings 的工作大大增强了我们对 “关怀” 所涉及的内容的理解。她区分了关心和关心。关怀涉及面对面的接触，在这种接触中，一个人直接满足另一个人的需求。我们首先了解被照顾意味着什么。“然后，渐渐地，我们学会了关心他人，进而学会了关心他人”（Noddings 2002：22）。诺丁斯认为，这种关心可以被视为为我们的正义感奠定了基础。

Noddings then argues that caring relations are a foundation for pedagogical activity (by which she means teaching activity):
Noddings 接着认为，关怀关系是教学活动的基础（她指的是教学活动）：

First, as we listen to our students, we gain their trust and, in an on-going relation of care and trust, it is more likely that students will accept what we try to teach. They will not see our efforts as “interference” but, rather, as cooperative work proceeding from the integrity of the relation. Second, as we engage our students in dialogue, we learn about their needs, working habits, interests, and talents. We gain important ideas from them about how to build our lessons and plan for their individual progress. Finally, as we acquire knowledge about our students’ needs and realize how much more than the standard curriculum is needed, we are inspired to increase our own competence (Noddings 2005).
首先，当我们倾听学生的意见时，我们会获得他们的信任，并且在持续的关怀和信任关系中，学生更有可能接受我们试图教的东西。他们不会把我们的努力看作是 “干涉”，而是把我们的努力看作是从关系的完整性出发的合作工作。其次，当我们与学生进行对话时，我们会了解他们的需求、工作习惯、兴趣和才能。我们从他们那里获得了关于如何建立我们的课程和为他们的个人进步制定计划的重要想法。最后，当我们了解学生的需求并意识到需要的不仅仅是标准课程时，我们受到启发，以提高自己的能力（Noddings 2005）。

For many of those concerned with social pedagogy, it is place where care and education meet – one is not somehow less than the other (Cameron and Moss 2011). For example, in Denmark ‘care’ can be seen as one of the four central areas that describe the pedagogical tasks:
对于许多关心社会教育学的人来说，它是护理和教育相遇的地方 —— 一个并不比另一个少（Cameron and Moss 2011）。例如，在丹麦，“关怀” 可以看作是描述教学任务的四个中心领域之一：

Care (take care of), socialisation (to and in communities), formation (for citizenship and democracy) and learning (development of individual skills)… [T] he ”pedagogical” task is not simply about development, but also about looking after… [P] edagogues not only put the individual child in the centre, but also take care of the interests of the community. (BUPL undated)
关怀（照顾）、社会化（社区和社区内）、培养（公民身份和民主）和学习（个人技能的发展）…“教学” 任务不仅关乎发展，还关乎照顾… 教育家不仅以个别儿童为中心，而且关心社区的利益。（BUPL，未注明日期）

What we have here is a helping relationship. It ‘involves listening and exploring issues and problems with people; and teaching and giving advice; and providing direct assistance; and being seen as people of integrity’. (Smith and Smith 2008: 14)
我们在这里所拥有的是一种帮助关系。它 “涉及倾听和探索与人相处的问题和问题；以及教导和提供建议；并提供直接援助；并被视为正直的人”。（史密斯和史密斯 2008：14）

Bringing learning to life 将学习带入生活

In talking about pedagogy as a process of bringing learning to life I want to focus on three aspects. Pedagogy as:
在谈到教学法是将学习带入生活的过程时，我想重点关注三个方面。教学法如下：

Animation – bringing ‘life’ into situations. This is often achieved by offering new experiences.
动画 – 将 “生命” 带入情境。这通常是通过提供新的体验来实现的。
Reflection – creating moments and spaces to explore lived experience.
反思 – 创造时刻和空间来探索生活经验。
Action – working with people so that they are able to make changes in their lives.
行动 —— 与人合作，使他们能够改变自己的生活。

Animation. In their 1997 book Working with experience: Animating learning David Boud and Nod Miller link ‘animating’ to ‘learning’ because of the word’s connotations: to give life to, to quicken, to vivify, to inspire. They see the job of animators (animateurs) to be that of ‘acting with learners, or with others, in situations where learning is an aspect of what is occurring, to assist them to work with their experience’ (1997: 7). It is a pretty good description of what many social pedagogues, youth workers and informal educators do for much of the time. They work with people on situations and relationships so that they are more stimulating and satisfying. However, they also look to what Dewey (1916) described as enlarging experience and to making it more vivid and inspiring (to use Boud and Miller’s words). They encourage people to try new things and provide opportunities that open up fresh experiences
动画。在他们 1997 年出版的《与经验一起工作：动画学习》一书中，David Boud 和 Nod Miller 将 “动画” 与 “学习” 联系起来，因为这个词的内涵是：赋予生命，加速，生动，启发。他们认为动画师（动画师）的工作是 “在学习是正在发生的事情的一个方面的情况下，与学习者或与他人一起行动，以帮助他们利用自己的经验进行工作”（1997：7）。这很好地描述了许多社会教育家、青年工作者和非正规教育工作者在大部分时间里所做的事情。他们与人们在情境和关系上合作，使他们更加刺激和令人满意。然而，他们也着眼于杜威（Dewey，1916）所描述的扩大经验，并使其更加生动和鼓舞人心（用 Boud 和 Miller 的话来说）。它们鼓励人们尝试新事物，并提供开启新体验的机会

Reflection. Within these fields of practice, there has been a long-standing tradition of looking to learning from experience and, thus, to encouraging reflection (see, for example, Smith 1994). Conversation is central to the practice of informal educators and animators of community learning and development. With this has come a long tradition of starting and staying with the concerns and interests of those they are working with, while at the same time creating moments and spaces where people can come to know themselves, their situations and what is possible in their lives and communities.
反射。在这些实践领域中，有一个长期的传统，即寻求从经验中学习，从而鼓励反思（例如，见 Smith，1994）。对话是非正式教育者和社区学习和发展激励者实践的核心。由此而来的是悠久的传统，即从与他们一起工作的人的关注和利益出发并坚持下去，同时创造一些时刻和空间，让人们可以了解自己、他们的处境以及他们的生活和社区中的可能性。

Action. This isn’t learning that stops at the classroom door, but is focused around working with people so that they can make changes in their lives – and in communities. As Lindeman put it many years ago, this is education as life. Based in responding to ‘situations, not subjects’ (1926: 4-7), it involves a committed and action-oriented form of education. This:
行动。这不是止步于教室门口的学习，而是专注于与人合作，以便他们能够改变自己的生活和社区。正如林德曼多年前所说，这就是教育，即生活。基于对 “情况，而不是主题”（1926：4-7）的回应，它涉及一种承诺和以行动为导向的教育形式。这：

… is not formal, not conventional, not designed merely for the purpose of cultivating skills, but… something which relates [people] definitely to their community… It has for one of its purposes the improvement of methods of social action… We are people who want change but we want it to be rational, understood. (Lindeman 1951: 129-130)
… 不是正式的，不是传统的，不仅仅是为了培养技能而设计的，而是… 肯定与 [人们] 与他们的社区有关的东西… 它的目的之一是改进社会行动方法… 我们是想要改变的人，但我们希望它是理性的、被理解的。（林德曼 1951：129-130）

In short, this is a process of joining in with people’s lives and working with them to make informed and committed change.
简而言之，这是一个参与人们生活并与他们合作以做出明智和坚定的改变的过程。

The process of pedagogy – a summary 教育学的过程 —— 总结

In Aristotle’s terms pedagogy comprises a leading idea (eidos); what we are calling haltung or disposition (phronesis – a moral disposition to act truly and rightly); dialogue and learning (interaction) and action (praxis – informed, committed action) (Carr and Kemmis 1986; Grundy 1987). In the following summary, we can see many of the elements we have been exploring here (Smith 2019).
用亚里士多德的话来说，教育学包括一个主导思想（eidos）; 我们称之为 haltung 或处置（phronesis – 一种真正和正确行事的道德倾向）; 对话和学习（互动）和行动（实践 - 知情、坚定的行动）（Carr 和 Kemmis 1986;Grundy 1987 年）。在下面的摘要中，我们可以看到我们在这里探索的许多元素（Smith 2019）。

hexis-praxis
To this, we need to add what Aristotle discusses as hexis – a readiness to sense and know. This is a state – or what Joe Sachs (2001) talks about as an ‘active condition’. It allows us to take a step forward – both in terms of the processes discussed above, and in what we might seek to do when working with learners and participants. Such qualities can be seen as being at the core of the haltung and processes of pedagogues and informal educators. There is a strong emphasis upon being in touch with feelings, of attending to intuitions and seeking evidence to confirm or question what we might be sensing. A further element is also present – a concern not to take things for granted or at their face value (See, also, Pierre Bourdieu on education, Bourdieu 1972|1977: 214 n1).
除此之外，我们需要添加亚里士多德所讨论的十六进制 —— 感知和认知的准备。这是一种状态 —— 或者乔・萨克斯（Joe Sachs，2001）所说的 “活动状态”。它使我们能够向前迈出一步 —— 无论是在上述讨论的过程中，还是在我们在与学习者和参与者合作时可能寻求做的事情方面。这些品质可以被看作是教育家和非正规教育者停滞不前和进程的核心。我们非常强调与感觉保持联系，关注直觉并寻求证据来确认或质疑我们可能感觉到的东西。此外，还存在另一个因素 —— 关注不要将事物视为理所当然或仅凭其表面价值（另见，Pierre Bourdieu，Bourdieu 1972|1977：214 n1）。

Conclusion 结论

The growing interest in social pedagogy and specialist pedagogues in some countries, when put alongside developments in thinking about the nature of learning –means that we are at one of those moments where there might be movement around how the term is used in English-language contexts. Here I just want to highlight three areas of debate:
在一些国家，人们对社会教育学和专业教育家的兴趣日益浓厚，再加上对学习本质的思考发展，这意味着我们正处于一个时刻，可能会围绕该术语在英语环境中的使用方式而有所变化。在这里，我只想强调三个辩论领域：

Is pedagogy tied to age?
教育学与年龄有关吗？
Can the notion of pedagogy be unhooked from the discourse of schooling and returned to something more like its Greek origins?
教育学的概念能否从学校教育的话语中解脱出来，回到更像希腊起源的东西？
Where are we to stand in the debate around whether it is an art, science or craft?
在关于它是一门艺术、科学还是一门手艺的辩论中，我们该站在什么位置？

Just for children? 只为儿童？

As we have seen, etymologically, ‘pedagogy’ is derived from the Greek paidag?ge? meaning literally, ‘to lead the child’ or ‘tend the child’. In common usage, it is often used to describe practice with children. Indeed, much of the work that ‘social pedagogy’ has been used to describe has been with children and young people. While Paulo Freire (1972) and others talked about pedagogy in relation to working with adults, there are plenty who argue that it cannot escape its roots is bound up with practice with children. For example, Malcolm Knowles (1970) was convinced that adults learned differently to children – and that this provided the basis for a distinctive field of enquiry. He, thus, set andragogy – the art and science’ of helping adults learn – against pedagogy. While we might question whether children’s processes of learning differ significantly from adults, it is the case that educators tend to approach them differently and employ contrasting strategies. The question we are left with is whether it is more helpful to restrict usage of the term ‘pedagogy’ to practice with children or whether it can be applied across the age range? There is a fairly strong set of arguments for the former position – the word’s origin; organisational and policy concerns that tend separate children (up to 18 years old) from adults; and current usage of the term. Against restricting it to children are that learning isn’t easily divided along child/adult lines; and via writers like Freire, it is possible to draw on traditions of thinking and practice regarding pedagogy that apply to both adults and children. While recognizing the strength of the arguments for using ‘pedagogy to describe practice across the lifespan, there may be pragmatic reasons for retaining a focus on children and young people. In part, this flows from the organizational context of schooling, welfare and education service; in part from etymology.
正如我们所看到的，从词源上讲，“pedagogy” 源自希腊语 paidag？ge？从字面上看，“带领孩子” 或 “照顾孩子”。在通常的用法中，它通常用于描述与儿童的练习。事实上，“社会教育学” 被用来描述的大部分工作都是针对儿童和年轻人的。虽然 Paulo Freire（1972）和其他人谈到了与成人合作相关的教育学，但也有许多人认为，它无法摆脱其根源，它与儿童的实践息息相关。例如，马尔科姆・诺尔斯（Malcolm Knowles，1970）坚信，成人的学习方式与儿童不同，这为一个独特的研究领域提供了基础。因此，他将 andragogy—— 帮助成年人学习的艺术和科学 —— 与教育学对立起来。虽然我们可能会质疑儿童的学习过程是否与成人有很大不同，但事实是，教育者倾向于以不同的方式处理他们并采用截然不同的策略。我们剩下的问题是，将 “教育学” 一词的使用限制在与儿童一起练习中是否更有帮助，或者它是否可以适用于各个年龄段？对于前一种立场，有一套相当有力的论据 —— 这个词的起源；倾向于将儿童（18 岁以下）与成人分开的组织和政策问题；以及该术语的当前使用情况。反对将其限制在儿童身上的原因是，学习不容易按照儿童 / 成人的界限进行划分；通过像弗莱雷这样的作家，可以借鉴适用于成人和儿童的教育学思维和实践传统。虽然认识到使用 “教育学” 来描述整个生命周期的实践的论点的力量，但可能有务实的理由来保持对儿童和年轻人的关注。在某种程度上，这是由于学校教育、福利和教育服务的组织背景造成的；部分来自词源。

Can pedagogy be unhooked from schooling? 教育学可以与学校教育脱钩吗？

There are also questions around the extent to which, in the English language at least, the notion of pedagogy has been tainted by its association with schooling. When we use the term to what extent are we importing assumptions and practices that we may not intend? ‘At the heart of this language’, wrote as Street and Street (1991: 163), ‘in contemporary society, there is a relentless commitment to instruction’. While didactics may be the most appropriate or logical way of thinking about the processes, ideas and commitments involved in teaching, there is some doubt that the term ‘pedagogy’ can take root in any sensible way in debates where English is the dominant language.
此外，还存在一些问题，即至少在英语中，教育学的概念在多大程度上因其与学校教育的联系而受到玷污。当我们使用这个术语时，我们在多大程度上引入了我们可能无意的假设和实践？“在这种语言的核心”，如《街头与街头》（1991：163），“在当代社会中，对教学有着不懈的承诺”。虽然教学法可能是思考教学中涉及的过程、想法和承诺的最合适或最合乎逻辑的方式，但有人怀疑 “教学法” 一词能否以任何合理的方式在以英语为主要语言的辩论中扎根。

In Britain and Ireland there is some hope that pedagogy can be rescued. That possibility rests largely on the extent to which social pedagogy and its associated forms become established – especially in social work and community learning and development. If this professional identity takes root, and academic training programmes follow, then there is a chance that a counter-culture will grow and offer a contrasting set of debates. There is some evidence that this is beginning to happen with jobs with the social pedagogue title appearing in both care settings and schools, and new degree programmes being established in the UK.
在英国和爱尔兰，教育学有望得到拯救。这种可能性很大程度上取决于社会教育学及其相关形式的建立程度 —— 尤其是在社会工作和社区学习与发展方面。如果这种专业身份扎根，并且学术培训计划随之而来，那么反主流文化就有可能发展壮大，并提供一系列对比鲜明的辩论。有证据表明，随着社会教育家头衔的工作出现在护理机构和学校中，以及英国正在建立新的学位课程，这种情况已经开始发生。

Art, science or craft? 艺术、科学还是手工艺？

While there are many who argue that pedagogy can be approached as a science (see, for example, the discussions in Kornbeck and Jensen 2009), others look to it more as an art or craft. Donald Schön’s (1983) work on reflective practice and his critique of the sort of ‘technical rationality’ that has been crudely employed within more ‘scientific’ approaches to practice has been influential. Elliot Eisner’s (1979) view of education and teaching as improvisatory and having a significant base in process has also been looked to. He argued that the ability to reflect, imagine and respond involves developing ‘the ideas, the sensibilities, the skills, and the imagination to create work that is well proportioned, skilfully executed, and imaginative, regardless of the domain in which an individual works’. ‘The highest accolade we can confer upon someone’, he continued, ‘is to say that he or she is an artist whether as a carpenter or a surgeon, a cook or an engineer, a physicist or a teacher’
虽然有很多人认为教育学可以作为一门科学来对待（例如，参见 Kornbeck 和 Jensen 2009 中的讨论），但其他人更多地将其视为一门艺术或手艺。唐纳德・舍恩（Donald Schön，1983）关于反思性实践的工作，以及他对在更 “科学” 的实践方法中被粗暴使用的 “技术理性” 的批评，产生了影响。埃利奥特・艾斯纳（Elliot Eisner，1979）认为教育和教学是即兴的，并且具有重要的过程基础，这一点也得到了研究。他认为，反思、想象和回应的能力涉及发展 “想法、情感、技能和想象力，以创造出比例适中、执行巧妙和富有想象力的作品，无论个人在哪个领域工作”。他继续说：“我们可以授予某人的最高荣誉是，他或她是一位艺术家，无论是木匠还是外科医生，厨师还是工程师，物理学家还是教师

The idea of pedagogy and teaching as a craft got a significant boost in the 1990s through the work of Brown and McIntyre (1993). Their research showed, that day-to-day, the work of experienced teachers had a strong base in what is best described as a ‘craft knowledge’ of ideas, routines and situations. In much the same way that C Wright Mills talked of ‘intellectual craftsmanship’, so we can think of pedagogy as involving certain commitments and processes.
在 1990 年代，通过布朗和麦金太尔（1993）的工作，将教学法和教学作为一门手艺的想法得到了显着的推动。他们的研究表明，在日常工作中，经验丰富的教师的工作在思想、例行公事和情境的 “工艺知识” 方面有着坚实的基础。就像 C・赖特・米尔斯（C Wright Mills）谈到 “智力工艺” 一样，我们可以认为教育学涉及某些承诺和过程。

Scholarship is a choice of how to live as well as a choice of career; whether he knows it or not, the intellectual workman forms his own self as he works toward the perfection of his craft; to realize his own potentialities, and any opportunities that come his way, he constructs a character which has as its core the qualities of a good workman.
奖学金是生活方式的选择，也是职业的选择；不管他知道与否，智力劳动者在努力追求他的手艺完美时形成了自己的自我；为了实现自己的潜力，以及任何遇到的机会，他塑造了一个以优秀工人的素质为核心的性格。

What this means is that you must learn to use your life experience in your intellectual work: continually to examine and interpret it. In this sense craftsmanship is the center of yourself and you are personally involved in every intellectual product upon which you work. (Mills 1959: 196)
这意味着你必须学会在你的智力工作中使用你的生活经验：不断地检查和解释它。从这个意义上说，手艺是你自己的中心，你亲自参与到你所工作的每一个智力产品中。（米尔斯 1959：196）

There is a significant overlap between what Schön talks about as artistry and Mills as craftsmanship – and many specialist pedagogues within the UK would be much more at home with these ways of describing their activities, than as a science. Certainly, it is difficult to see how the environments or conditions in which pedagogues work can be measured and controlled in the same way that would be normal in what we might call ‘science’. It is also next to impossible on a day-to-day basis to assess in a scientific way the different influences on an individual and group, and the extent to which the work of the pedagogue made a difference.
Schön 所说的艺术和 Mills 所说的手工艺之间存在着显着的重叠 —— 英国的许多专业教育家对这些描述他们活动的方式比作为一门科学更熟悉。当然，很难看出如何以与我们所谓的 “科学” 中正常的方式相同的方式来测量和控制教育工作者工作的环境或条件。在日常工作中，以科学的方式评估对个人和群体的不同影响，以及教育工作者的工作在多大程度上产生了影响，也几乎是不可能的。

We need to move discussions of pedagogy beyond seeing it as primarily being about teaching – and look at those traditions of practice that flow from the original pedagogues in ancient Greece. We have much to learn from the thinking and practice of specialist pedagogues who look to accompany learners, care for and about them, and bring learning into life. Teaching is just one aspect of their practice.
我们需要将对教育学的讨论从主要关于教学的观念中转移出来，而要看看那些源自古希腊原始教育家的实践传统。我们可以从专业教育家的思想和实践中学到很多东西，他们希望陪伴学习者，关心他们，关心他们，并将学习带入生活。教学只是他们实践的一个方面。

陈庆：教育（Education）与教育学（Pedagogy）

DR. IUR. TSING TSCHEN

2022 年 7 月 16 日

教育（education）与教育学（Pedagogy）

陈庆

1、英文 education 符指 “教育”。这个词源自拉丁文 educatio。因此，要想搞清楚英文 education 的本来内涵，我们需要理解拉丁文 ēducātiō 的内在构造。拉丁文 ēducātiō 由动词ēducō与后缀 tiō复合而成。

2、拉丁文后缀 tiō的基本作用是对动词进行名词化处理：通过在某个动词词干基础上添加 tiō后缀，形成与某个动词内涵相关的名词。因此，拉丁文 ēducātiō 的基本内涵源自动词 ēducō（“养育”“教育”）。我早些年把这个词源关系误解成了ēdūcō（“领导”“导出”）>ēducātiō（“教育”）。尽管 ēdūcō（“领导”“导出”）与 ēducō（“养育”“教育”）去掉长短音后的拼写都是 educo，这里我们需要注意ēdūcō（“领导”“导出”）与ēducō（“养育”“教育”）的区别：前者是第三变位动词，其不定式是ēdūcere，后者是第一变位动词，其不定式是ēducāre。

3、拉丁文动词 ēducō 由两个部分构成：ex+ dux>ēducō。

第一个构成部分是 ex。这是一个介词，符指 “出来”，相当于英文 out of。

第二个构成部分是名词 dux。这是一个名词，符指 “引领者”，相当于英文 leader。

因此，拉丁文动词ēducō背后存在如下基本意义链条：

ex（“出来”）+ dux（“引领者”）>ēducō（“养育”“教育”“训练”）。

4、相应地，拉丁文ēducātiō与英文 education 背后存在如下意义链条。

拉丁文介词 ex（“出来”）+ 拉丁文名词 dux（“引领者”）> 拉丁文动词ēducō（“养育”“教育”“训练”）> 拉丁文名词ēducātiō（“教育”）> 英文 education

5、由上述意义链条可知，英文 education 蕴含两个基本观念。第一，education 预设了 “引领者（拉丁文 dux）”。第二，education 预设了 “出来（拉丁文 ex）”。从 “引领者” 观念中，我们可以发展出 “教师” 理论。但是，“出来（拉丁文 ex）” 观念涉及更深的哲学问题。按照柏拉图的洞穴比喻，这种 “出来（拉丁文 ex）” 本质上指 “生命性（旧译灵魂，即英文 soul，拉丁文 anima，古希腊文 ψυχή）”（关于 ψυχή 翻译：从生命到生命性：亚里士多德的生命性概念（《托马斯・阿奎那〈论法的本质〉章句疏证》论述选登（三）））的 “转向”。这种 “转向” 指从观照 “what is it like” 转向观照 “what is it（拉丁文 quid est，古希腊文 τί ἐστιν）”。

6、英文 Pedagogy 符指 “教育学”，该词源自古希腊文名词 παιδαγωγία。古希腊文名词 παιδαγωγία 由名词 παιδαγωγός 与后缀 ία 复合而成。παιδαγωγός 由 παῖς（“孩童”“奴仆”）与ἀγωγός（“先导”“引领者”）复合而成。παιδαγωγός 本义是 “接送孩子上学的奴仆”，可意译为 “书仆”。后缀 ία 添加到某一个名词词干后，能形成基于该名词词干内涵的抽象名词。因此，παιδαγωγία 本义是 “παιδαγωγός 的职责”，即 “书仆的职责”。由于古希腊的 παιδαγωγός（“书仆”）不仅接送孩子上学，还是负责孩子生活习惯塑造与课后辅导，παιδαγωγός（“书仆”）后来就形成了第二义：教师。因此，英文 Pedagogy（“教育学”）背后存在如下意义链条。

παῖς（“孩童”）+ἀγωγός（“先导”“引领者”）>παιδαγωγός（“书仆”“教师”）>παιδαγωγία（“书仆职责”“教学活动”）> Pedagogy（“教育学”）

这里需要注意的是，名词ἀγωγός（“先导”“引领者”）与动词ἄγω（“引领”）共享了同一个词根，它们都蕴含 “引领” 观念。
7、据 Merriam-Webster 词典考证，英文 education 从 1531 年开始符指 “教育”（来源：“Education.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/education. Accessed 15 Jul. 2022.），而英文 Pedagogy 从 1623 年开始符指 “教育学”（来源：“Pedagogy.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pedagogy. Accessed 16 Jul. 2022.）。

英文 education（“教育”）与英文 Pedagogy（“教育学”）共同传递了 “教育” 的核心观念：引领。

这意味着，教育的最基本内涵不是知识灌输，不是洗脑，更不是灵魂工程行为，而是引领 “生命性” 的转向：从观照万物之虚假表象，转向到观照万物之 “本相（英文 idea，德文 Idee，拉丁文 idea，古希腊文 ἰδέα）”。

2022 年 7 月 16 日写于重庆仙女山镇

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