希腊字母的起源

注：机翻，未校。

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Origin of Greek Alphabet

by Joshua J. Mark
published on 01 August 2023

Nestor’s Cup

Antonius Proximo (CC BY-NC-SA)

The Greek Alphabet developed from the Phoenician script at some point around the 8th century BCE. The earlier Mycenaean Linear B script, used primarily for lists and inventories, had been lost during the Greek Dark Age, and the technology of the written word remained unavailable until the invention of the alphabet, which influenced the later Latin script.
希腊字母是在公元前 8 世纪左右的某个时候从腓尼基文字发展而来的。早期的迈锡尼线性 B 文字，主要用于列表和库存，在希腊黑暗时代已经丢失，直到字母表的发明，书面文字的技术一直不可用，这影响了后来的拉丁文字。

希腊字母于公元前8世纪左右从腓尼基文字演变而来。早期的迈锡尼线性B文字主要用于清单和库存，但在希腊黑暗时代期间失传，书写技术在此之后一直未得以恢复，直到字母的发明，这影响了后来的拉丁字母。

The basis for the writing system known as the ‘alphabet’ came from the Near East, specifically the Levant, but, as scholar Barry B. Powell, points out, these earlier systems were not the alphabet:
被称为“字母表”的书写系统的基础来自近东，特别是黎凡特，但正如学者巴里·鲍威尔（Barry B. Powell）所指出的那样，这些早期的系统并不是字母表：

From an historical point of view, “alphabet” and “Greek alphabet” are one and the same. The Greek alphabet was the first writing that informed the reader what the words sounded like, whether or not he knew what the words meant. The word “alphabet” itself is Greek, formed from the Greek names of the first two signs in the series [alpha and beta]. Earlier writings, including such West Semitic writings as Phoenician and Hebrew, were in this sense not alphabets. All later alphabets, the Latin or Cyrillic or the International Phonetic Alphabet, are modifications of the Greek alphabet, having the same internal structure.
从历史的角度来看，“字母表”和“希腊字母表”是一回事。希腊字母是第一个告诉读者这些词听起来像什么的文字，无论他是否知道这些词的意思。“字母表”这个词本身是希腊语，由系列中前两个符号的希腊名字 [alpha 和 beta] 组成。早期的著作，包括腓尼基语和希伯来语等西闪米特人的著作，从这个意义上说不是字母表。所有后来的字母表，拉丁字母或西里尔字母或国际音标，都是希腊字母的修改，具有相同的内部结构。

Unlike the Mycenaean Linear B Script, which seems to have served a primarily utilitarian function, the alphabet was quickly used in preserving the literary oral tradition by writing down the Iliad and the Odyssey (attributed to Homer) and religious traditions as recorded by Hesiod in his Theogony, all three dated to the 8th century BCE. New works were also created, however, such as Hesiod’s Works and Days, and inscriptions such as the one from Nestor’s Cup (also dated to the 8th century BCE), among the earliest extant examples of Greek writing.
与迈锡尼线性 B 文字不同，迈锡尼线性 B 文字似乎主要起到了功利作用，该字母表很快被用于保存文学口头传统，通过写下赫西俄德在他的《神学》中记录的《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》和宗教传统，这三者都可以追溯到公元前 8 世纪。然而，也创作了新作品，例如赫西俄德的作品和日子，以及诸如内斯特杯（也可追溯到公元前 8 世纪）之类的铭文，这些都是现存最早的希腊文字示例。

From the 8th century BCE onwards, the Greek alphabet was used to produce all of the famous works of the civilization on topics ranging from astronomy and astrology to botany, biology, creative writing, literary criticism, history, the medical arts, philosophy, science, sociology, veterinary medicine, and zoology, among many others, standardizing knowledge and allowing for further developments. The Greek alphabet was adopted by the Etruscans and transmitted by them to the Romans who used it to develop the Latin script, which became the basis for modern alphabetic scripts.
从公元前 8 世纪开始，希腊字母被用于制作文明的所有著名作品，主题从天文学和占星术到植物学、生物学、创意写作、文学批评、历史、医学艺术、哲学、科学、社会学、兽医学和动物学等，标准化知识并允许进一步发展。希腊字母被伊特鲁里亚人采用，并由他们传给罗马人，罗马人用它来发展拉丁字母，成为现代字母文字的基础。

Linear B & The Greek Dark Age 线性 B 和希腊黑暗时代

The Mycenaean Civilization (c. 1700-1100 BCE) developed over 100 urban centers across Greece and Anatolia and kept records through the writing system known as Linear B Script. Linear B developed from the Linear A Script of the Minoan Civilization (2000-1450 BCE), but as Linear A remains undeciphered, their relationship is unclear.
迈锡尼文明（约公元前 1700-1100 年）在希腊和安纳托利亚开发了 100 多个城市中心，并通过称为线性 B 文字的书写系统保存记录。 线性 B 是从米诺斯文明（公元前 2000-1450 年）的线性 A 文字发展而来的，但由于线性 A 仍未破译，它们之间的关系尚不清楚。

At some point between 800-700 BCE, the alphabet was introduced to the Greeks by the Phoenicians.

Linear B was a syllabic script consisting of over 80 signs and 100 ideograms. A syllabic script, as the name suggests, represents the syllables of a word through these characters – the signs providing phonetic and referential meaning and the ideograms the subject matter and quantity (or some unit of measurement). A line of Linear B would give the signs up front, the subject (sheep), and quantity (25) but could not convey a need for twenty-five sheep.
线性 B 是一个音节文字，由 80 多个符号和 100 个表意文字组成。音节文字，顾名思义，通过这些字符表示单词的音节——提供语音和指称含义的标志，以及表意文字、主题和数量（或某种计量单位）的音节。线性 B 线将在前面给出标志、主语（绵羊）和数量 （25），但无法传达对 25 只羊的需求。

Consequently, the script was only used for official records of the Mycenaean palace complexes and inventory in trade. There is no written Mycenaean literature because they did not have a writing system capable of expressing complex thoughts or concepts, even though they clearly had such thoughts as shown through the archeological evidence of their religious practices.
因此，该文字仅用于迈锡尼宫殿建筑群的官方记录和贸易清单。没有书面的迈锡尼文学，因为他们没有能够表达复杂思想或概念的书写系统，即使他们显然有这样的思想，正如他们的宗教实践的考古证据所显示的那样。

Linear B tablet

Sharon Mollerus (CC BY-NC-SA)

The Mycenaean Civilization fell during the Bronze Age Collapse (c. 1250 to c. 1150 BCE), initiating the Greek Dark Age (c. 1200 to c. 800 BCE) during which Linear B was lost. However limited the script may have been, it still provided a written record of the activities of the people, which was no longer possible during the Dark Age. Reconstruction of daily life in ancient Greece during this period relies entirely on archaeological evidence or works from other civilizations of the Near East.
迈锡尼文明在青铜时代崩溃期间（公元前约 1250 年至公元前 1150 年）衰落，随之而来的是希腊黑暗时代（公元前约 1200 年至公元前 800 年），在此期间线性 B 文字丧失了。尽管这种文字的使用有限，但它仍然提供了一个人们活动的书面记录，而在黑暗时代这一记录不再可能。对古希腊在这一时期日常生活的重建完全依赖于考古证据或来自近东其他文明的作品。

Origin of the Alphabet 字母表的起源

At some point between 800-700 BCE, the alphabet was introduced to the Greeks by the Phoenicians (most likely through Phoenician traders), but how this happened is unclear. Herodotus (l. c. 484-425/413 BCE) provides the best-known version of the event:
在公元前 800-700 年之间的某个时候，腓尼基人（很可能是通过腓尼基商人）将字母表引入希腊人，但目前尚不清楚这是如何发生的。希罗多德（约公元前 484-425/413 年）提供了该事件最著名的版本：

The Phoenicians who came to Greece with Cadmus ended up living in this land and introducing the Greeks to a number of accomplishments, most notably the alphabet which, as far as I can tell, the Greeks did not have before then. At first the letters they used were the same as those of all Phoenicians everywhere, but as time went by, along with the sound, they changed the way they wrote the letters as well. At this time, most of their Greek neighbors were Ionians. So it was the Ionians who learnt the alphabet from the Phoenicians; they changed the shapes of a few letters, but they still called the alphabet they used the “Phoenician alphabet”, which was only right, since it was the Phoenicians who had introduced it into Greece.
腓尼基人随卡德摩斯来到希腊，最终定居于此，并向希腊人介绍了许多成就，最显著的是字母表。据我所知，希腊人在此之前并没有字母表。起初，他们使用的字母与所有腓尼基人使用的字母相同，但随着时间的推移，连同发音，他们也改变了字母的书写方式。当时，他们的大部分希腊邻居是爱奥尼亚人。因此，是爱奥尼亚人从腓尼基人那里学会了字母表；他们对几个字母的形状进行了修改，但仍然称他们使用的字母表为“腓尼基字母表”，这完全正确，因为正是腓尼基人将其引入了希腊。

Phoenician Alphabet

Ansgar (Public Domain)

Powell, among others, dismisses this account as “nascent historical thinking…seeking to place past human events in real time” (6) and mythologizing the event through the figure of Cadmus, the great Phoenician hero-prince who founded Thebes. Writers before and after Herodotus give their own versions of the birth of the Greek alphabet, some, like the Latin writer Gaius Julius Hyginus (l. c. 64 BCE to 17 CE), attributing it almost wholly to the work of the gods and Fates, but the general consensus is its Phoenician origin. Powell comments:
Powell 等人将此说法视为 “初生的历史思维…… 试图将过去的人类事件置于真实时间中”（第 6 页），并通过腓尼基伟大英雄王子卡德摩斯的形象对这一事件进行了神话化，他是底比斯的创始人。在海罗多德之前和之后的作家们对希腊字母的起源给出了自己的版本，其中一些，如拉丁作家盖乌斯・朱利乌斯・希金斯（公元前约 64 年至公元后 17 年），几乎将其完全归因于神灵和命运的作用，但普遍共识是它的腓尼基起源。Powell 评论道：

Phoenician writing consists of a signary of twenty-two syllabic signs, each of which designates a consonant plus an unspecified vowel (or no vowel). Of obscure origin, but usually thought to descend from Egyptian, the script was fully developed by 1000 BC, when it spread without differentiation to Hebrew Palestine and soon after to Aramaic-speaking Syria and northern Mesopotamia. The simple syllabary replaced, in many areas, the cumbersome logo-syllabic Akkadian cuneiform scripts, long supported by the ruling elite of Bronze Age civilization.
腓尼基文字由二十二个音节符号组成，每个音节符号代表一个辅音和一个未指定的元音（或没有元音）。这种文字起源晦涩难懂，但通常被认为是埃及语的后裔，到公元前 1000 年，它毫无区别地传播到希伯来语巴勒斯坦，不久之后又传播到讲阿拉姆语的叙利亚和美索不达米亚北部。在许多领域，简单的音节取代了繁琐的阿卡德语楔形文字，这些文字长期以来一直受到青铜时代文明统治精英的支持。

Cuneiform, invented by the Sumerians c. 3500 BCE and refined c. 3200 BCE, had 600 characters in its simplest form. It is easy to understand, therefore, why a more concise writing system would have been welcomed and would, eventually, replace it. Scholars Christopher Scarre and Brian M. Fagan comment on the development of the system that became the Greek alphabet:
楔形文字由苏美尔人于公元前 3500 年左右发明，并在公元前 3200 年左右提炼出来，最简单的形式有 600 个字符。因此，很容易理解为什么更简洁的书写系统会受到欢迎，并最终会取代它。学者克里斯托弗·斯卡雷（Christopher Scarre）和布莱恩·费根（Brian M. Fagan）评论了成为希腊字母表的系统的发展：

The idea of alphabetic components first appeared in inscriptions found in Sinai, known as Protosinaitic, and dated to c. 1700 BC. These took Egyptian hieroglyphics as a basis but used a small selection of the full range of hieroglyphic signs to form the letters of an alphabet. The language of the inscriptions was not Egyptian but Canaanite, and it was in the Levant that the subsequent development of the alphabet took place. By the eleventh century BC, a fully developed version of this early alphabet was being used by the Phoenicians. The Israelites and Aramaeans adopted and adapted the Phoenician alphabet in the ninth century BC, and the Greeks adopted it from Phoenician merchants in the eighth century.
字母成分的概念最早出现在西奈半岛发现的铭文中，被称为原始人，可追溯到公元前 1700 年左右。这些以埃及象形文字为基础，但使用了一小部分象形文字符号来形成字母表的字母。铭文的语言不是埃及语，而是迦南语，字母表的后续发展是在黎凡特进行的。到公元前十一世纪，腓尼基人正在使用这种早期字母的完全发展版本。以色列人和阿拉米人在公元前九世纪采用并改编了腓尼基字母，希腊人在八世纪从腓尼基商人那里采用了它。

However the initial transfer of information took place, it is thought it involved a Greek who was well-acquainted with the Phoenician written script and was able to make whatever adjustments thought necessary to develop the script for use by the Greeks. This may have included adding vowels and two letters to bring the total number up to 24 from 22, or this development may have come later.
无论最初的信息传递发生如何，人们认为它涉及一位希腊人，他非常熟悉腓尼基人的书面文字，并且能够做出任何认为必要的调整，以开发希腊人使用的文字。这可能包括添加元音和两个字母，使总数从 22 增加到 24，或者这种发展可能是后来出现的。

Greek Alphabet

Jason Davey (Public Domain)

Early Use & Impact 早期使用和影响

Once the script was mastered, it was used to record far more than lists of inventory. The oral tradition of Greece, developed during the Dark Age and featuring tales of the creation of the world, the birth of the gods, and the adventures of great heroes, could now be committed to written form, and this seems to have happened fairly quickly after the alphabet was introduced to the Greeks. Scholar Thomas R. Martin comments:
一旦掌握了文字，它被用来记录的远不止是清单。希腊的口头传统，在黑暗时代发展起来，以世界的创造、众神的诞生和伟大英雄的冒险故事为特色，现在可以以书面形式出现，这似乎是在字母被引入希腊人之后很快发生的。学者托马斯·马丁评论道:

Knowledge of writing was the most dramatic contribution of the ancient Near East to Greece as the latter region emerged from its Dark Age. The Greeks probably originally learned the alphabet from the Phoenicians to use it for record keeping in business and trade, as the Phoenicians did so well, but they soon started to employ it to record literature, namely, Homeric poetry. Since the ability to read and write remained unnecessary for most purposes in the predominantly agricultural economy of Archaic Greece and there were no schools, few people at first learned the new technology of letters.
文字知识是古代近东地区对希腊最显著的贡献，因为希腊地区从黑暗时代崛起。希腊人最初可能从腓尼基人那里学习了字母表，以便将其用于商业和贸易的记录，就像腓尼基人做得很好一样，但他们很快就开始使用它来记录文学，即荷马诗歌。由于在古希腊以农业为主的经济中，大多数情况下仍然不需要读写能力，而且没有学校，因此最初很少有人学习字母的新技术。

Those who write the stories, however, shape the culture, and it did not matter whether one could read the pages of Homer because one could hear the stories read, watch their recitation, and through this participation, however passive, absorb the cultural values encouraged by the literate social elite. Martin notes:
然而，那些写故事的人塑造了文化，一个人是否能读荷马的书页并不重要，因为一个人可以听到读的故事，观看他们的朗诵，并通过这种参与，无论多么被动，吸收了有文化的社会精英所鼓励的文化价值观。Martin 指出：

The ideas and traditions of this social elite concerning the organization of their communities and proper behavior for everyone in them – that is, their code of values – represented, like the reappearance of agriculture, basic components of Greece’s emerging new political forms. The social values of the Dark Age elite underlie the stories told in the Iliad and Odyssey, two book-length poems that first began to be written down about the middle of the eighth century BC, at the very end of the Dark Age.
这些社会精英关于社区组织和他们中每个人的正确行为的思想和传统——即他们的价值观——就像农业的重新出现一样，代表了希腊新兴政治形式的基本组成部分。《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》中讲述的故事是黑暗时代精英的社会价值观的基础，这两首长诗最早开始被写下来，大约在公元前八世纪中叶，也就是黑暗时代的末期。

At about this same time, the poet Hesiod composed his Theogony on creation, the birth of the gods, and their genealogy and, sometime after this, wrote the first autobiographical poem in Greek literature, Works and Days, invoking the gods to take his side against unjust judges and laws that favored his brother Perses over the author in a dispute regarding ownership of the family farm. Although earlier civilizations had produced autobiographical works, these were not available to the Greeks, as Powell notes:
大约在同一时间，诗人赫西俄德创作了关于创世、众神的诞生和他们的家谱的神学，并在此之后的某个时候写了希腊文学中的第一首自传体诗《作品和日子》，祈求众神站在他一边，反对不公正的法官和法律，这些法官和法律在关于家庭农场所有权的争端中偏袒他的兄弟佩尔塞斯而不是作者。尽管早期的文明已经出版了自传体作品，但正如鲍威尔所指出的，希腊人无法获得这些作品：

What about the literature that went before, couched in the writings of the immemorially old, splendid civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia? These literate civilizations flourished 2,500 years before Homer and gave much to Hellas in technical and material culture. How much of their literate culture was transferred to Greece? The answer is “little or none.” The Greek simply could not read the writings of pre-Greek peoples.
那么，在埃及和美索不达米亚那些古老而灿烂的文明的著作中出现的那些文学作品又如何呢？这些有文化的文明在荷马之前2500年就蓬勃发展，并在技术和物质文化上为希腊带来了很多。他们的识字文化有多少被转移到希腊？答案是“很少或没有”。希腊人根本无法阅读前希腊民族的著作。

The works of Homer and Hesiod, therefore, while not ‘new’ from a global historical perspective, were completely novel to the Greeks. The influence the Greek alphabet had on the development of Greek culture was enormous, even if, as noted, most of the population was illiterate during the Archaic Age. The alphabet introduced the people to worlds presented by writers they would never meet, and it allowed for endless possibilities of word combinations in shaping these worlds for a particular effect, sometimes the same effect: elevation, enlightenment, and understanding.
因此，荷马和赫西俄德的作品虽然从全球历史的角度来看并不“新”，但对希腊人来说却是完全新颖的。希腊字母对希腊文化发展的影响是巨大的，即使如前所述，在古代大多数人口都是文盲。字母表向人们介绍了他们从未见过的作家所呈现的世界，它允许单词组合的无限可能性来塑造这些世界，以产生特定的效果，有时是相同的效果：提升、启蒙和理解。

Portrait of Hesiod

Carole Raddato (CC BY-NC-SA)

The Iliad and Odyssey are epic book-length poems, the Theogony a little over 1000 lines, Works and Days almost 900 lines, but among the earliest examples of the Greek alphabet is a three-line inscription on the drinking vessel known as Nestor’s Cup which could be considered the first ‘beer commercial’ in history:
《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》是史诗般的长篇诗，《神谱》略多于1000行，《作品》和《日子》将近900行，但在希腊字母的最早例子中，有一个名为“内斯特杯”的饮酒器皿上的三行铭文，可以被认为是历史上第一个“啤酒广告”：

Who am I? None other than the luscious
Drinking cup of Nestor. Drink me quickly –
And be seized in lust by golden Aphrodite.
你是谁？我是内斯特的美丽酒杯。
快喝下我 –
被金色的欲望所攫取。

(Cahill, 58)

On the simplest level, the inscription suggests a narrative still used in advertising in the present day – Drink this beer and get the beautiful woman – but by identifying the vessel as Nestor’s cup it also invites the drinker to associate himself with Nestor, the wise king of Pylos from the Iliad and, by that association, with all the other great Homeric heroes, gods, and goddesses. Just as the Iliad and Odyssey might elevate the hearts and minds of the hearers, so might this inscription of only three lines.
在最简单的层面上，铭文暗示了当今广告中仍在使用的叙述——喝下这瓶啤酒，得到美丽的女人——但通过将容器识别为内斯特的杯子，它也邀请饮酒者将自己与《伊利亚特》中睿智的皮洛斯国王内斯托尔联系起来，并通过这种联想，与所有其他伟大的荷马英雄联系起来， 众神和女神。正如《伊利亚特》和《奥德赛》可以提升听众的心灵和思想一样，这幅只有三行字的铭文也可以。

The cultural impact of these works, which owed their existence to the alphabet, was immense. Scholar Thomas Cahill comments:
这些作品的存在归功于字母表，其文化影响是巨大的。学者托马斯·卡希尔（Thomas Cahill）评论道：

A writing system of some twenty-odd characters meant that anyone might learn to read, even a child, a woman, or a slave. What empowerment this implied! – especially when considered against earlier systems…One needed to know Hebrew well in order to read it confidently. If Hebrew was not your mother tongue, you would always be guessing which vowel sounds to supply between the consonants. But written Greek, because of the addition of vowels, required no subjective judgment or interpretation. It was completely objective, completely out there, completely distinct from the reader. Just as the simplicity of alphabetical writing made possible general access to literacy, which in its turn encouraged democratic give-and-take, the utter objectivity of the Greek alphabet encouraged the demystification of the world. (59)
一个由大约二十多个字符组成的书写系统意味着任何人都可以学习阅读，即使是孩子、女人或奴隶。这意味着多么大的赋权！– 特别是当与早期系统相比时…一个人需要非常了解希伯来语，才能自信地阅读它。如果希伯来语不是你的母语，你总是会猜测辅音之间应该提供哪个元音。但是书面希腊语，由于增加了元音，不需要主观的判断或解释。它是完全客观的，完全在那里，与读者完全不同。正如字母书写的简单性使人们能够普遍获得识字，这反过来又鼓励了民主的让步，希腊字母的完全客观性也鼓励了世界的神秘化。(59)

Conclusion 结论

As the alphabet allowed one to build on lessons of the past, it encouraged the development of philosophical, scientific, medical, religious, political, cultural, and social systems. In Greece, the concept of democracy was already understood and practiced during the Dark Age, but during the Archaic and Classical ages, it developed into a recognizable system of government. Prior to the alphabet, one could believe whatever one wanted to without difficulty, but, afterwards, one was required to reconcile one’s beliefs with an objective standard of reality as presented by the written word.
由于字母表允许人们吸取过去的教训，它鼓励了哲学、科学、医学、宗教、政治、文化和社会制度的发展。在希腊，民主的概念在黑暗时代就已经被理解和实践，但在古代和古典时代，它发展成为一种可识别的政府体系。在字母表出现之前，人们可以毫无困难地相信任何自己想相信的东西，但是，在字母表之后，人们需要将自己的信仰与书面文字所呈现的客观现实标准相协调。

Since the Greek alphabetic script was easier to learn than others, it encouraged greater literacy, broadened through the establishment of schools, resulting in a more cohesive society that recognized objective truths, even if they then argued over what those truths meant. It also led to a democratization of literacy. Although only the upper class could afford the tuition for formal education, anyone with the desire could learn how to read the Greek alphabet. Cahill comments:
由于希腊字母比其他字母更容易学习，它鼓励了更多的识字，通过建立学校扩大了识字范围，从而形成了一个更有凝聚力的社会，承认客观真理，即使他们当时就这些真理的含义争论不休。它还导致了扫盲的民主化。虽然只有上层阶级才能负担得起正规教育的学费，但任何有愿望的人都可以学习如何阅读希腊字母。卡希尔评论道：

A type of literacy that can be grasped easily by almost anyone will tend to spread some kind of proto-democratic consciousness far and wide, even if this is accomplished only in small steps over a very long period of time…A type of literacy that demystifies the act of reading, erasing for all time the aura of an unapproachable Sacred Brotherhood of scribes, wisemen, and potentates, will by its very nature tend to demystify additional realms of human experience. (60)
一种几乎任何人都可以轻松掌握的识字方式，往往会把某种原始民主意识传播得很远很广，即使这只是在很长一段时间内小步完成…一种识字方式揭开了阅读行为的神秘面纱，永远抹去了由抄写员、智者和权贵组成的难以接近的神圣兄弟会的光环，就其本质而言，它往往会揭开人类经验的其他领域的神秘面纱。(60)

The Greek alphabet, later adopted by the Etruscans and then the Romans, became the basis for the modern-day alphabet and, so, the modern paradigm of what constitutes objective reality. Prior to the alphabet, a narrative concerning the life of the state or community might take many forms depending on the memory of the speaker and their particular interpretation; afterwards, stories became standardized, accepted as truth, and known as ‘history.’ Discoveries or novel ideas, whose transmission previously relied on one’s proximity to the innovator, could now be understood over both distance and time, allowing for further development in multiple disciplines. Before the alphabet, there was only opinion; afterwards, there was fact.
希腊字母后来被伊特鲁里亚人和罗马人采用，成为现代字母的基础，因此，构成了客观现实的现代范式。在字母表出现之前，关于国家或社区生活的叙述可能采取多种形式，这取决于说话者的记忆和他们的特定解释;后来，故事被标准化，被接受为真理，并被称为“历史”。发现或新颖的想法，其传播以前依赖于一个人与创新者的接近程度，现在可以在距离和时间上被理解，从而允许在多个学科中进一步发展。在字母表之前，只有意见;事后，有事实。

Bibliography

• Auden, W. H. The Portable Greek Reader . Penguin Classics, 2000.
• Cahill, T. Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter. Anchor, 2010.
• Callimachus & Lombardo, S. & Carne-Ross, D. S. Callimachus: Hymns, Epigrams, Select Fragments. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010.
• Herodotus & Waterfield, R. Herodotus: The Histories. Oxford University Press, 2008.
• Livingstone, R. W. The Legacy of Greece. Clarendon Press, 2010.
• Martin, T. R. Ancient Greece: From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times. Yale University Press, 2013.
• Mireaux, E. Daily Life in the Time of Homer. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 2000.
• Powell, B. B. Homer and the Origin of the Greek Alphabet. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
• Scarre, C. & Fagan, B. M. Ancient Civilizations. Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2000.
• Van De Mieroop, M. A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000-323 BC. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.

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via:

• Greek Alphabet - World History Encyclopedia

  https://www.worldhistory.org/Greek_Alphabet/