嵌入式系统设计中的里程碑

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分类专栏： embedded systems 文章标签：嵌入式

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Chronological Evolution Of The Embedded Systems

Posted on May 8, 2020 by Anirban Sarkar

What Are Embedded Systems? 什么是嵌入式系统？

Embedded Systems are computer systems that reside insides the device it controls. These are hardware and software combination, computer memory, I/O peripheral with real-time computing constraints, that are either fixed in capability or programmable, designed for a specific function towards to device they are attached to. They can range from having no user interface to having complex graphical(GUI) interface like mobile devices. Next, we will look into the Evolution of Embedded Systems.
嵌入式系统是驻留在它所控制的设备内部的计算机系统。这些是硬件和软件组合、计算机内存、具有实时计算限制的 I/O 外围设备，它们要么是固定的，要么是可编程的，专为它们所连接的设备的特定功能而设计。它们的范围从没有用户界面到具有复杂的图形（GUI）界面（如移动设备）。接下来，我们将研究嵌入式系统的演变。

How Embedded Systems Changed Over Time 嵌入式系统如何随时间变化

Evolution of Embedded Systems

嵌入式系统的演变

Year 1833: Michael Faraday described electronic conduction increasing with temperature in silver sulfide crystals.
1833 年 - 迈克尔·法拉第描述了硫化银晶体中电子传导随温度的增加而增加。
Year 1874: Ferdinand Braun noted that current flowed freely only in one direction at the contact between the metal point and galena crystal.
1874 年 - 费迪南德·布劳恩指出，电流仅在金属点和方铅矿晶体之间的接触处沿一个方向自由流动。
Year 1961: Charles Stark Draper developed the Integrated Circuit (IC) to reduce the size and weight of the Apollo Guidance Computer.
1961 年 - Charles Stark Draper 为了减小 Apollo 制导计算机的尺寸和重量，开发了集成电路（IC）。
Year 1965: Autonetics developed the D-17B missile guidance system for the Minuteman I.
1965 年 - Autonetics 在 Minuteman I 中开发了 D-17B 导弹制导系统。
Year 1968: The Volkswagen 1600 used a microprocessor to control its electronic fuel injection system.
1968 年 - 大众 1600 使用微处理器来控制其电子燃油喷射系统。
Year 1970: Texas Instruments developed the first microcontroller.
1970 年 - 德州仪器开发了第一台微控制器。
In 1971, Intel introduced the first commercially available processor, the 4004, a 4-bit processor designed for calculators and small electronics.
此外，在 1971 年，英特尔开发了第一款商用处理器4004。它是一个4位处理器，专为计算器和小型电子产品而设计。
Year 1987: Wind River released the first embedded operating system, VxWorks, a real-time OS.
1987 年 - Wind River 发布了第一个嵌入式操作系统，实时 VxWorks。
In 1996, Microsoft released Windows Embedded CE.
此外，在1996年，Microsoft发布了Windows Embedded CE。
Late 1990s: Embedded Linux products began to gain popularity, and today, Linux is used in almost all embedded devices.
1990年代后期 - 嵌入式Linux产品开始流行，如今Linux几乎用于所有嵌入式设备。

These significant contributions towards the evolution of embedded systems have greatly influenced modern gadgets and technologies, all of which depend on embedded systems.
所有这些对嵌入式系统发展的重大贡献都促成了现代小工具和技术的发展，所有这些都依赖于嵌入式系统。

Embedded Systems In Present Time 当今的嵌入式系统

As we can see Evolution of Embedded Systems took place at a rapid pace and significant contributions have been made by many scientists.
正如我们所看到的，嵌入式系统的演变速度很快，许多科学家都做出了重大贡献。

Today’s embedded systems can be divided into:
今天的嵌入式系统可以分为：

Real-Time Embedded System
1）实时嵌入式系统
Stand-alone Embedded System
2）独立的嵌入式系统
Networked Embedded System
3）网络嵌入式系统
Mobile Embedded System
4）移动嵌入式系统
Small-scale Embedded System
5）小型嵌入式系统
Medium-Scale Embedded System
6）中型嵌入式系统
Sophisticated or Complex Embedded System
7）复杂或复杂的嵌入式系统

Most of the embedded systems of the current time are based on microcomputers, which are programmable, small computers with integrated memory all in one single integrated circuit (IC).
目前的大多数嵌入式系统都是基于可编程的微型计算机，小型计算机将集成内存全部集成在一个集成电路（IC）中。

The latest technology in Embedded Systems in the present time are:

当前嵌入式系统的最新技术是：

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
1）人工智能和机器学习
Deep Learning
2）深度学习
Embedded Security
3）嵌入式安全性
Cloud Connectivity
4）云连接
Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality
5）增强现实和虚拟现实

Focus on Real-Time Embedded Systems

Today’s focus is on Real-Time Embedded Systems.
今天的重点是实时嵌入式系统。

What is Real-Time Embedded System?

What is Real-Time Embedded System?
什么是实时嵌入式系统？

These are the latest and the most in-demand development in the Evolution of Embedded Systems.
这些是嵌入式系统发展过程中最新和最需要的发展。

These are computer systems that monitor, control, and respond as per need to a change or an event in the external environment.
这些是根据需要监控、控制和响应外部事件中的变化或事件的计算机系统。

It has a low latency response to an input event.
它对输入事件的响应延迟较低。

These systems work with strict time constraints and can provide guaranteed worst-case response time to critical events and acceptable average-case response time to non-critical events.
这些系统在严格的时间限制下工作，可以保证对关键事件的最坏情况响应时间，对非关键事件提供可接受的平均情况响应时间。

Real-Time Embedded Systems can be divided into 2 types:
实时嵌入式系统可分为2种类型：

Hard Real-Time Embedded System
1）硬核实时嵌入式系统
Soft Real-Time Embedded System
2）软实时嵌入式系统

Hard Real-Time Embedded System- The primary function of these types to systems is to ensure that all critical functions/processes are completed within the stipulated time frame and missing a deadline is considered a system failure. All delays in the systems are strictly time-bound. Data is stored in short-term or read-only memory as there is no secondary memory. These types of systems are used in various missiles and airplanes.

硬实时嵌入式系统 - 这些类型对系统的主要功能是确保所有关键功能/流程在规定的时间范围内完成，错过最后期限被视为系统故障。系统中的所有延迟都有严格的时间限制。数据存储在短期或只读存储器中，因为没有辅助存储器。这些类型的系统用于各种导弹和飞机。

Soft Real-Time System- Even though the basic functionality is to ensure that critical processes have to completed within a given time frame, they are less constrictive than Hard-Time Systems. Soft Real-Time tries to reach a deadline but does not consider it a system failure if one or two deadlines are missed. They are a little bit more flexible than Hard Real-time Systems. They are used in various areas like multimedia, scientific projects, seismic sensors, etc.

软实时系统 - 尽管基本功能是确保关键流程必须在给定的时间范围内完成，但它们比硬时间系统的限制要小。Soft Real-Time 会尝试达到截止日期，但如果错过了一两个截止日期，则不会将其视为系统故障。它们比 Hard Real-time Systems 更灵活一些。它们用于多媒体、科学项目、地震传感器等各个领域。

Three Major Challenges with Real-Time Embedded Systems

实时嵌入式系统的三大挑战

Managing software engineering Organizations
1）管理软件工程组织
Ensuring the development of a performance relevant architecture
2）确保开发与性能相关的架构
Finding suitable tools
3）寻找合适的工具

Applications Of Real-Time Embedded Systems 实时嵌入式系统的应用

Vehicle control system for automobiles, ships.
汽车、船舶的车辆控制系统。
Military operations 军事行动
Multimedia systems that provide graphics, video, and audio
提供图形、视频和音频的多媒体系统
Space operations like spaceship launch, monitoring and space station control
太空操作，如宇宙飞船发射、监控和空间站控制
Medical treatments for radiation therapy, heart operations, etc.

放射线治疗、心脏手术等的药物治疗

Stand-Alone Embedded System

Stand-Alone Embedded System: These are less complex and work on their own. They are independent of a system. Input is received by respective I/O pins, and then the decision is made to perform output. They are mostly used in MP3 players, doorbells, calculators, etc.
独立嵌入式系统： 这些系统不太复杂，可以独立工作。它们独立于系统。输入由相应的 I/O 引脚接收，然后决定执行输出。它们多用于MP3播放器、门铃、计算器等。

Networked Embedded Systems

Networked Embedded Systems: These systems are connected with some kind of network. The system communicates with the server using the network. Applications of these systems can be found in ATM machines, card swipe devices, etc. Our whole process of banking has changed and made it easier because of the new developments and evolution of Embedded Systems.
联网嵌入式系统： 这些系统与某种网络连接。系统使用网络与服务器通信。这些系统的应用可以在ATM机、刷卡设备等中找到。由于嵌入式系统的新发展和演变，我们的整个银行业务流程发生了变化并变得更加容易。

Mobile Embedded Systems

Mobile Embedded Systems: These are the most preferred among embedded systems and represent a significant contribution towards the evolution of Embedded Systems. Their main advantage is their wide range. Applications of these systems can be found in mobile phones, wireless cameras, etc.
移动嵌入式系统： 这些是嵌入式系统中最受欢迎的，是对嵌入式系统发展的重大贡献。它们的主要优点是范围广。这些系统的应用可以在手机、无线相机等中找到。

Small Scale Embedded Systems

Small Scale Embedded Systems: These are entry-level systems where 8-bit or 16-bit processors are used. The code for these systems is generally written in assembly language or in embedded C language. Applications of these can be found in ovens, CD drives, fax machines, printers, etc.
小型嵌入式系统： 这些是使用8位或16位处理器的入门级系统。这些系统的代码通常是用汇编语言或嵌入式C语言编写的。这些应用可以在烤箱、CD驱动器、传真机、打印机等中找到。

Medium-Scale Embedded Systems

Medium-Scale Embedded Systems: These contain a 16-bit processor to a 32-bit processor. They are usually faster than small-scale systems. These are not preferred by many due to many complexities.
中型嵌入式系统： 这些系统包含一个16位处理器到一个32位处理器。它们通常比小规模系统更快。由于许多复杂性，许多人并不喜欢这些。

Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems

Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems: Speed is a major concern here. They have both hardware and software complexity. These can be found in network routers, IP cameras, etc., and mark the evolution of Embedded Systems.
复杂或复杂的嵌入式系统： 速度是这里的一个衡量标准。它们具有硬件和软件复杂性。这些可以在网络路由器、IP摄像机等中找到，标志着嵌入式系统的演变。

Conclusion 结论

So, we can see from the above article that the Evolution of Embedded Systems has taken place drastically along the way. In today’s world, we cannot think of a device that does not have Embedded Systems. No electronic product in the market is with an Embedded System. Every industry needs Artificial intelligence which is the future and this can be provided by implementing Embedded Systems. Thus, we can say there is definitely a long way to go in the research and development of new technology embedded system, inculcating deep learning, etc and thus, anyone in the field of embedded system is sure to have a bright and exciting future and might further contribute towards the future Evolution of Embedded Systems
因此，从上面的文章中我们可以看到，嵌入式系统的演变在此过程中发生了翻天覆地的变化。在当今世界，我们无法想象没有嵌入式系统的设备。市场上没有电子产品配备嵌入式系统。每个行业都需要人工智能，这是未来，这可以通过实施嵌入式系统来提供。因此，我们可以说在新技术嵌入式系统的研发、灌输深度学习等方面肯定还有很长的路要走，因此，嵌入式系统领域的任何人都肯定会拥有光明和令人兴奋的未来，并可能进一步为嵌入式系统的未来发展做出贡献。

Milestones in embedded systems design 嵌入式系统设计中的里程碑

Embedded Staff

Please comment on the timeline: we want to hear your stories and suggestions. Are we missing any events or inventions that are pertinent to embedded systems? Do you have any good photos you’re willing to share? Send your suggestions and photos to or log on and post your comments below.
请在时间线上发表评论：我们想听听您的故事和建议。我们是否遗漏了任何与嵌入式系统相关的事件或发明？你有什么好照片愿意分享吗？将您的建议和照片发送至或登录并在下方发布您的评论。

Milestones in embedded systems design
嵌入式系统设计中的里程碑

1936 – 1937 Computer technology:

Alan Turing publishes article “On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem” in Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2 , which paves the way not only for computers but for stored-program architectures. Turing later helps design the Colossus (to some, the first digital computer) and is crucial in breaking the codes of the German Enigma machine during the Second World War.
See Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy’s The Modern History of Computing.
Virtual Travelog’s The Evolution of the Modern Computer An Open Source Graphical History (1934 to 1950)
1936 – 1937 计算机技术： Alan Turing 在 Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society， Series 2 上发表了文章“On Computable Numbers， with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem”，该文章不仅为计算机铺平了道路，也为存储程序体系结构铺平了道路。图灵后来帮助设计了 Colossus（对一些人来说，这是第一台数字计算机），并且在第二次世界大战期间破解德国 Enigma 机器的密码方面发挥了关键作用。参见斯坦福哲学百科全书的 The Modern History of Computing。 Virtual Travelog 的《现代计算机的演变：开源图形历史（1934 年至 1950 年）》
在这里插入图片描述

A page from Alan Turing’s notes.
艾伦·图灵（Alan Turing）笔记中的一页。

1939 Computer technology:

John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry create a prototype of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC), the first digital computer. See Wikipedia’s entry.
1939 计算机技术： John Atanasoff 和 Clifford Berry 创建了第一台数字计算机 Atanasoff-Berry 计算机（ABC）的原型。参见维基百科的条目。

1944 Computer technology:

Colossus, the first fully functioning electronic digital computer, is used by the Bletchley Park cryptanalysts.
1944 计算机技术： Colossus 是第一台功能齐全的电子数字计算机，被布莱切利公园密码分析师使用。

1945 Debugging:

First computer bug found by Grace Hopper. Trillions were found by later developers.
1945 调试： Grace Hopper 发现的第一个计算机错误。不计其数的被后来的开发人员发现。

在这里插入图片描述
First bug from Grace Hopper’s notes.
Grace Hopper 笔记中的第一个 bug。

1946 Computer technology:

Eniac, the world’s first “programmable” stored-program electronic digital computer, comes to life.
1946 计算机技术： Eniac 是世界上第一台“可编程”存储程序电子数字计算机诞生了。

在这里插入图片描述

ENIAC – When big iron was really big. With 18,000 vacuum tubes it had roughly the complexity of a cheap digital Timex.
ENIAC – 当大铁杆真的很大的时候。它有 18,000 个真空管，其复杂性大致相当于廉价的数字 Timex。

1947 Electronics:

William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain build the first practical point-contact transistor at Bell Labs
1947 电子学： William Shockley、John Bardeen 和 Walter Brattain 在贝尔实验室构建了第一个实用的点接触晶体管

Reproduction of the first transistor.
第一个晶体管的复制品。

1950s Language evolution:

Assembly languages were first developed.
1950 年代语言演变：汇编语言最初被开发出来。

在这里插入图片描述

Z80 assembly code Z80 组装代码

1952 Compilers:

Grace Hopper writes the first compiler for the A-0 programming language.
1952 编译器： Grace Hopper 为 A-0 编程语言编写了第一个编译器。

1953 Computer technology:
Magnetic Core Memory developed.
1953 计算机技术：开发磁芯存储器。
在这里插入图片描述

A 13k bit core array in 26 planes of 512 bits each, with a 1 GB flash drive (which has about 10 billion transistors on it).
一个 13k 位核心阵列，分为 26 个平面，每个平面 512 位，带有一个 1 GB 闪存驱动器（上面有大约 100 亿个晶体管）。

1954 Language evolution:

John Backus and his team at IBM start developing FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation).
1954 语言演变： John Backus 和他在 IBM 的团队开始开发 FORTRAN （FORmula TRANslation）。

1957 Compilers:

The FORTRAN team led by John Backus at IBM introduces the first complete compiler.
1957 编译器：由 IBM 的 John Backus 领导的 FORTRAN 团队推出了第一个完整的编译器。

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A FORTRAN II program
FORTRAN II 程序

1958 Language evolution:
Charles H. Moore starts working on a personal programming system, which evolves into FORTH.
1958 语言演变： Charles H. Moore 开始研究个人编程系统，该系统后来演变为 FORTH。

1958 Language evolution:

John McCarthy develops LISP at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1958 语言演变： John McCarthy 在麻省理工学院开发 LISP。

在这里插入图片描述

Lisp Code Lisp 代码

1958, Sept. 12 Electronics:

Jack St Clair Kilby invents the integrated circuit at Texas Instruments. Robert Noyce works separately on the invention.
1958 年 9 月 12 日电子学： Jack St Clair Kilby 在德州仪器（TI）发明了集成电路。罗伯特·诺伊斯（Robert Noyce）单独研究这项发明。

1958 Language evolution:

ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language)is developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists in a meeting in at ETH Zurich.
1958 语言演变： ALGOL （ALGOrithmic Language）是由欧洲和美国计算机科学家组成的委员会在苏黎世联邦理工学院的一次会议上联合开发的。

1959 Language evolution:

COBOL (COmmon Business-Orientated Language) is developed with the initial specifications released in April 1960.
1959 语言演变： COBOL （COmmon Business-Oriented Language）是根据 1960 年 4 月发布的初始规范开发的。

1960 Compilers:

COBOL was an early language to be compiled on multiple architectures.
1960 编译器： COBOL 是一种在多种架构上编译的早期语言。

1961 Language evolution:

APL programming language released by Kenneth Iverson at IBM.
1961 语言演变： APL 编程语言由 IBM 的 Kenneth Iverson 发布。

在这里插入图片描述

A complete APL program that plays the game of life.
一个完整的 APL 程序，玩着人生的游戏。

1962 Compilers:

The first self-hosting compiler–capable of compiling its own source code in a high-level language–was created for Lisp by Hart and Levin at MIT.
1962 编译器：第一个自托管编译器 - 能够用高级语言编译自己的源代码 - 是由麻省理工学院的 Hart 和 Levin 为 Lisp 创建的。

1962 Computer technology:

Texas Instruments introduces the 7400 series of logic ICs.
1962 计算机技术： Texas Instruments 推出 7400 系列逻辑 IC。
在这里插入图片描述

The TTL Data Book from TI, which had spec sheets for all of the 7400 series parts.
TI 的 TTL 数据手册，其中包含所有 7400 系列器件的规格表。

1964 Language evolution:

IBM releases Programming language PL/1.
1964 语言演变： IBM 发布编程语言 PL/1。

1965 Computer technology:

DEC introduces the 12 bit PDP-8 minicomputer, which by 1973 was the best-selling computer in the world. PDP-8s were probably the first computers “embedded” in instrumentation and other sorts of commercial systems due to its low cost (about $18k in 1965 dollars, or $120k today).
1965 计算机技术： DEC 推出了 12 位 PDP-8 微型计算机，到 1973 年，该计算机已成为世界上最畅销的计算机。PDP-8 可能是第一台“嵌入”仪器仪表和其他类型的商业系统中的计算机，因为它的成本低（按 1965 年美元计算约为 18 美元，或今天的 120 美元）。

在这里插入图片描述

First generation PDP-8.
第一代 PDP-8。

1965 Computer technology:

Gordon Moore’s article, published in April 1965 Electronics Magazine , establishes Moore’s Law.
1965 计算机技术： Gordon Moore 的文章发表在 1965 年 4 月的《电子杂志》上，确立了摩尔定律。

1965 Language evolution:

Dr. Thomas Kurtz and Dr. John Kemeny develop BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) programming language.
1965 语言演变： Thomas Kurtz 博士和 John Kemeny 博士开发了 BASIC（初学者通用符号指令代码）编程语言。

在这里插入图片描述

A BASIC program. Some still feel that learning BASIC poisons one’s programming abilities for life.
一个 BASIC 程序。有些人仍然认为学习 BASIC 会毒害一个人的编程能力。

1967 Language evolution:

Niklaus Wirth begins developing PASCAL, finishing in 1971.
1967 语言演变： Niklaus Wirth 开始开发 PASCAL，并于 1971 年完成。

1968 Electronics:

RCA releases the CD4000 CMOS logic family. CMOS, being so slow, is seen as an impractical technology for high-end processing.
1968 电子学： RCA 发布 CD4000 CMOS 逻辑系列。CMOS 如此缓慢，被视为高端处理不切实际的技术。

1968 Electronics:

Fairchild introduces the 741, the most popular op amp of all time, which was destined to be used in vast numbers of embedded systems.
1968 电子学： Fairchild 推出了 741，这是有史以来最受欢迎的运算放大器，注定要用于大量的嵌入式系统。

在这里插入图片描述

Click on image to enlarge.**

Schematic of the 741 op amp.
741 运算放大器原理图

1970s Language evolution:

FORTH available to other programmers.
1970 年代语言演变： FORTH 可供其他程序员使用。

1970 Electronics:

Texas Instruments develops a mask-programmable IC called programmable logic array (PLA), based on IBM’s read-only associative memory.
1970 电子学： Texas Instruments 基于 IBM 的只读关联存储器开发了一种称为可编程逻辑阵列（PLA）的掩码可编程 IC。

1970 Computer Technology:

Intel releases the 1103 chip, the first generally available dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) memory chip. See History of Computer Memory.
1970 计算机技术： Intel 发布 1103 芯片，这是首款通用的动态随机存取存储器（DRAM）内存芯片。请参阅计算机内存的历史记录。

1971 Electronics:

Signetics introduces the 555 timer, one of the most popular chips of all time.
1971 电子学： Signetics 推出了 555 计时器，这是有史以来最受欢迎的芯片之一。

1971 Computer Technology:

Intel releases first microprocessor, the 4004, a 4-bit central processing unit. See Computer History Museum’s timeline on microprocessors.
1971 计算机技术： Intel 发布了第一款微处理器 4004，这是一个 4 位中央处理器。请参阅计算机历史博物馆关于微处理器的时间表。

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The 4004, the chip that started the microprocessor revolution.
4004 是开启微处理器革命的芯片。

1971 Electronics:

General Electric develops first erasable programmable logic device (PLD) based on the new PROM technology.
1971 电子学：通用电气开发了第一款基于新 PROM 技术的可擦除可编程逻辑器件（PLD）。

1971 Computer Technology:

Intel releases the 1101 chip, a 256-bit programmable memory, and the 1701 chip, a 256-byte erasable read-only memory (EROM).
1971 计算机技术： Intel 发布了 1101 芯片（一种 256 位可编程存储器）和 1701 芯片（一种 256 字节可擦除只读存储器（EROM）。

1972** Language evolution:

Dennis Ritchie develops C at the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.
1972 语言演变： Dennis Ritchie 在 Bell Telephone Laboratories 开发了用于 Unix 操作系统的 C。

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A C function A C 函数

1972 Computer technology:

Intel introduces the floating-gate UV erasable PROM.
1972 计算机技术： Intel 推出浮栅 UV 可擦除 PROM。

1972 Computer technology:

Intel introduces 8008.
1972 计算机技术： Intel 推出 8008。

1972 Language evolution:

Gary Kildall develops the PL/M programming language (Programming Language for Microcomputers), a high-level language for Intel’s microprocessors.
1972 语言演变： Gary Kildall 开发了 PL/M 编程语言（微型计算机编程语言），这是一种用于 Intel 微处理器的高级语言。

1973 Computer technology:

Intel releases the Intellec 8 development system for the 8008.
1973 计算机技术： Intel 发布了 Intellec 8 的 8008 开发系统。

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1973 Electronics:

National Semiconductor introduces a mask-programmable PLA device (DM7575).
1973 电子学： National Semiconductor 推出掩模可编程 PLA 器件（DM7575）。

1973 Language evolution:

Charles Moore and Elizabeth Rather formed FORTH, Inc., refining and porting Forth systems to dozens of other platforms in the next decade.
1973 语言演变： Charles Moore 和 Elizabeth Rather 成立了 FORTH， Inc.，在接下来的十年中，Forth 系统经过改进并移植到其他数十个平台。

1973 Computer technology:

Texas Instruments introduces the first dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) that is a 4K-bit chip.
1973 计算机技术： Texas Instruments 推出首款动态随机存取存储器（DRAM），即 4K 位芯片。

1973 Ethernet developed.
1973 开发了以太网。

1974 Computer technology:

CLIP-4, the first computer with a parallel architecture.
1974 计算机技术： CLIP-4 是第一台具有并行架构的计算机。

1974 – 1976 Electronics:

GE and Monolithic Memories develop the MMI 5760, a mask-programmable logic device they call the programmable associative logic array (PALA). The part was never brought to market.
1974 – 1976 电子学： GE 和 Monolithic Memories 开发了 MMI 5760，这是一种他们称为可编程关联逻辑阵列（PALA）的掩码可编程逻辑器件。该零件从未进入市场。

1975 Electronics:

Napoleone Cavlan at Signetics develops 82S100 PLA (programmable logic array) based on National Semiconductors DM7575. More about the history of programmable logic
1975 电子学： Signetics 的 Napoleone Cavlan 基于 National Semiconductors DM7575 开发了 82S100 PLA（可编程逻辑阵列）。有关可编程逻辑历史的更多信息

1975 Compilers:

Bill Gates and Paul Allen deliver a BASIC compiler to MITS. Microsoft is born.
1975 编译器： Bill Gates 和 Paul Allen 为 MITS 提供了一个 BASIC 编译器。Microsoft 诞生了。

1975 Computer technology:

MITS releases the Altair 8800 at an unheard-of price point of $400. The home computer is born.
1975 计算机技术： MITS 以闻所未闻的 400 美元的价格发布 Altair 8800。家用电脑就这样诞生了。
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The Altair 8800. Altair 8800 的

1975 Computer technology:

MOS Technology releases the 6502 for only $25 in single unit quantities. The next year a tiny startup named “Apple Computer” used this chip in their Apple 1 computer.
1975 计算机技术： MOS Technology 推出 6502 单件订购量仅为 25 美元。第二年，一家名为“Apple Computer”的小型初创公司在他们的 Apple 1 计算机中使用了这款芯片。

1976 Computer technology:

Zilog released the Z80 8-bit microprocessor.
1976 计算机技术： Zilog 发布了 Z80 8 位微处理器。

1976 Computer technology:

RCA releases the 1801, the first CMOS microprocessor. Though successful in some niche markets it was seen as technically inferior due to the use of slow CMOS gates.
1976 计算机技术： RCA 发布了 1801，这是第一款 CMOS 微处理器。尽管在一些利基市场取得了成功，但由于使用了慢速 CMOS 门，它被认为在技术上处于劣势。

1976 (1977 from some references) Computer technology:

Intel releases the first one-chip microcontroller, the 8048
1976 （1977 年来自一些参考资料）计算机技术： Intel 发布第一款单芯片微控制器 8048

1978 Electronics:

MMI introduces programmable array logic (PAL) developed by John Birkner and H. T. Chua.
1978 电子学： MMI 推出了由 John Birkner 和 HT Chua 开发的可编程阵列逻辑（PAL）。

1978 Computer technology:

Intel introduces the 8086 microprocessor chip (the beginning of the x86 architecture).
1978 计算机技术： Intel 推出了 8086 微处理器芯片（x86 架构的开端）。

1979 Language evolution:

Bjarne Stroustrup develops C++ at Bell Labs as an enhancement to the C programming language.
1979 语言演变： Bjarne Stroustrup 在贝尔实验室开发 C++，作为 C 编程语言的增强。

1979 Computer technology:

Bell Labs introduces single-chip digital signal processor (Bell Labs’ single-chip DSP-1 Digital Signal Processor device architecture). Computer History Museum.
1979 计算机技术： Bell Labs 推出单芯片数字信号处理器（Bell Labs 的单芯片 DSP-1 数字信号处理器器件架构）。计算机历史博物馆。

Late 1970s Electronics:

Nearly everyone gives up on bipolar logic in CPUs and goes to CMOS.
1970 年代后期电子学：几乎每个人都放弃了 CPU 中的双极逻辑，转而使用 CMOS。

1980 Operating systems:

Hunter&Ready (James Ready and Colin Hunter’s company) release first commercial operating system for embedded systems, VRTX (Versatile Real-Time Executive).
1980 操作系统： Hunter&Ready（James Ready 和 Colin Hunter 的公司）发布了第一个用于嵌入式系统的商业操作系统 VRTX （Versatile Real-Time Executive）。

1980s Electronics:

Altera releases its erasable programmable logic device (EPLD).
1980 年代电子学： Altera 发布其可擦除可编程逻辑器件（EPLD）。

1980s Operating systems:

WindRiver acquires rights to resell VRTX with an extension named VxWorks.
1980 年代操作系统： WindRiver 获得了转售 VRTX 的权利，并带有名为 VxWorks 的扩展。

1980 Computer technology:

Intel introduces 8051 (Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller).
1980 计算机技术： Intel 推出 8051（哈佛架构，单芯片微控制器）。

1981 Computer technology:

A team led by John L. Hennessy at Stanford University starts work on what would become the first MIPS processor.
1981 计算机技术：斯坦福大学的 John L. Hennessy 领导的团队开始研究第一个 MIPS 处理器。

1982 Computer technology:

Intel releases the 80286. (Also known as the 286, it had 6 to 8 MHz initially, 24-bit address bus, and an average speed of 0.21 instructions per clock. It was produced from 1982 to 1986.) Check out Wikipedia’s entry.
1982 计算机技术： Intel 发布了 80286。（也称为 286，它最初具有 6 到 8 MHz、24 位地址总线和每个时钟 0.21 条指令的平均速度。它于 1982 年至 1986 年制作。查看维基百科的条目。

1983 Operating systems:

Richard Stallman announces GNU operating system.
1983 操作系统： Richard Stallman 宣布推出 GNU 操作系统。

1984 Electronics:

Xilinx co-founds FPGA (field programmable gate array). The history according to Xilinx can be found here www.xilinx.com/company/history.htm
1984 电子学： Xilinx 是 FPGA（现场可编程门阵列）的联合创始人。Xilinx 的历史可以在这里找到 www.xilinx.com/company/history.htm

1984 Compilers:

Borland introduces Turbo Pascal.
1984 编译器： Borland 推出 Turbo Pascal。

1984 Computer technology:

Fujio Masuoka invents flash memory (NOR and NAND) while working for Toshiba.
1984 计算机技术： Fujio Masuoka 在为 Toshiba 工作时发明了闪存（NOR 和 NAND）。

1985 Computer technology:

MIPS Computer Systems releases their first design, the R2000.
1985 计算机技术： MIPS Computer Systems 发布了他们的第一个设计 R2000。

1985 Computer technology:

Acorn Computers Ltd. makes samples of ARM1 architecture available. ARM2 ships in 1986.
1985 计算机技术： Acorn Computers Ltd. 提供 ARM1 体系结构的样品。ARM2 于 1986 年推出。

1985 Debugging:

Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) forms.
1985 调试：联合测试行动小组（JTAG）表格。

1986 Programming methods:

Scrum is born.
1986 编程方法： Scrum 诞生了。

1986 Computer technology:

Intel releases its 80386. (At 5 to 11.4 millions of instructions per second for the 33 MHz model, with 32-bit architecture.) Check out Wikipedia’s entry.
1986 计算机技术： Intel 发布了其 80386。（33 MHz 型号采用 32 位架构，每秒 5 到 1140 万条指令。查看维基百科的条目。

1987 Compilers:

Borland releases version 1.0 of Turbo C for the IBM PC. Turbo C gave a huge boost to the use of C in embedded applications.
1987 编译器： Borland 发布了适用于 IBM PC 的 Turbo C 1.0 版本。Turbo C 极大地推动了 C 在嵌入式应用中的使用。

1988 Computer technology:

Intel introduces the first commercial NOR-type flash chip.
1988 计算机技术： Intel 推出第一款商用 NOR 型闪存芯片。

1988First Embedded Systems Programming magazine issue comes out in November.
1988 第一期 Embedded Systems Programming 杂志于 11 月出版。

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1989 Computer technology:
Toshiba introduces NAND flash.
1989 计算机技术：东芝推出 NAND 闪存。

1989 First Embedded Systems Conference is held at the Sir Francis Drake hotel in San Francisco.
1989 首届嵌入式系统会议在旧金山的 Sir Francis Drake 酒店举行。

1989 Computer technology:

Intel releases its 80486 (i486). Produced from 1989 to 2007, the 486 was a 32-bit x86 microprocessors, with pipelined x86 design. 8192-byte SRAM and 32-bit data bus and a 32-bit address bus. Check out Wikipedia’s entry.
1989 计算机技术： Intel 发布了其 80486 （i486）。486 于 1989 年至 2007 年生产，是一款 32 位 x86 微处理器，采用流水线 x86 设计。8192 字节 SRAM 和 32 位数据总线以及 32 位地址总线。查看维基百科的条目。

Late 1980s Electronics:

Surface mount technology starts to replace through-hole leading to a generation of myopic engineers. Later “improvements” in this technology leads to embedded systems, whose programs were always inaccessible, that can’t even be probed.
1980 年代后期电子学：表面贴装技术开始取代通孔，催生了一代近视工程师。这项技术后来的“改进”导致了嵌入式系统，其程序总是无法访问，甚至无法探测。

1990 Debugging:

IEEE adopts JTAG standard as IEEE Std. 1149.1-1990.
1990 调试： IEEE 采用 JTAG 标准，即 IEEE Std. 1149.1-1990。

1990 Computer technology:

Apple and Acorn form a new company called Advanced RISC Machines Ltd. They eventually figure out how to make lots of money manufacturing nothing.
1990 计算机技术： Apple 和 Acorn 成立了一家名为 Advanced RISC Machines Ltd. 的新公司。他们最终想出了如何通过什么都不生产来赚很多钱。

1990 Dilbert appears.
1990 Dilbert 出现。

1991** Operating systems:

The Linux operating system is introduced, designed by Finnish university student Linus Torvalds.
1991 操作系统：推出由芬兰大学生 Linus Torvalds 设计的 Linux 操作系统。

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Tux, Linux’s mascot Tux，Linux 的吉祥物

1992 Operating systems:

Jean Labrosse publishes the book µC/OS The Real-Time Kernel , which introduces the MicroC/OS kernel.
1992 操作系统： Jean Labrosse 出版了 μC/OS The Real-Time Kernel 一书，其中介绍了 MicroC/OS 内核。

1993 Computer technology:

Intel releases its Pentium processor. Produced from 1993 to 1997, it was Intel’s single-core x86 microprocessor based on the P5 fifth-generation microarchitecture.
1993 计算机技术： Intel 发布其 Pentium 处理器。它于 1993 年至 1997 年生产，是英特尔基于 P5 第五代微架构的单核 x86 微处理器。

1993 IBM, Apple and Motorola release the PowerPC architecture.
1993 IBM、Apple 和 Motorola 发布了 PowerPC 架构。

Mid-1990s Programming methods:

Agile arrives on the scene.
1990 年代中期编程方法：敏捷出现。

1994 Debugging:

Joint Test Action Group adds boundary scan description language (BSDL) to its standard.
1994 调试：联合测试行动小组在其标准中增加了边界扫描描述语言（BSDL）。

1995 Programming methods:

Agile methods of Adaptive Software Development, Feature Driven Development, and Dynamic Systems Development Method are established.
1995 编程方法：建立了自适应软件开发、特征驱动开发和动态系统开发方法的敏捷方法。

1995 Language evolution:

Sun releases Java.
1995 语言演变： Sun 发布了 Java。

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