writing

Ⅰ. Academic Reading

0. The ReadingList in UCL

Give u a guideline of the reading materials to the related programmes and subjects.

ReadingLists@UCL | Library Services - UCL – University College London

• Food security important to OBE (sources used in the exam)

1. Definition of Text Types

• Textbook:

  a book, usually written for students, which gives standard information on a particular subject.

• academic journal: a publication with a collection of articles that is published regularly focusing on research on a specific field of knowledge.

• grey literature:

  a term used to describe a wide range of useful information that is produced outside of traditional academic publishing and distribution channels.

  (Organizations such as national governments, the United Nations, and the OECD often publish well researched reports. These are examples of grey literature. It is material that can be useful for academic work, but is not typically published by or for academics.)

• academic journal article:

  an article describing and evaluating a piece of new research in a peer-reviewed academic journal, written by the researchers themselves.

• book chapter:

  sections of a longer work that are often included on academic reading lists, as they may focus on a particularly relevant theme. (在论文集上发表)

  (When you can see a place of publication in a reference list entry, this usually indicates that it is a book.
  There are clues that this is a chapter in the book, such as the fact that there are separate article authors and editors, indicated by ‘(eds)’.
  Page numbers, indicated by ‘pp’, also indicate that this is a section from a larger publication. )

2. Reading Academically Advice

Reading academically:

• Skimming and scanning
• Know the key you are looking for
• ONLY reading that section.

About the section of an academic article.

1. Abstract: finding related info of your question
2. Introduction and Conclusion part: may find some arguments and position statement.
3. Always read the Abstract to check how relevant a text is
4. Use the layout and headings in the text to help you navigate
5. The most important information should be in the introduction, followed by the conclusion
6. Highlight key sections to help you find them again later
7. Read in detail the sections that are most relevant to your research question.

3. Basic rules of academic style

• Formal words: No phrasal verbs (No习惯用语)
• No contraction: don’t, wasn’t
• Passive structure
• Tentative language: tell the reader “what you think is right”; e.g. could/might/
• Avoiding vague language: 模糊的

4. Basic strategies of academic reading

Most important Section:

• Abstract

**More useful strategies **:

• Using titles and subheadings to locate relevant sections.
• Reading abstracts, introductions, and conclusions (or reading the first and last paragraphs of sections) to locate important information.

Less useful strategies :

• Reading the first sentences (and or last sentences) of paragraphs to identify the main point.

Not often to use strategies :

• Using a keyword search to locate particular information in electronic text (e.g. Ctrl+F or ⌘+F).
• Using contents pages and indexes in books to locate relevant sections.
• Using in-text citations and reference lists to locate other potentially useful sources of information.

Scanning and Skimming

Scanning. When you read something quickly and systematically to find specific information, you are scanning. This is an important part of reading efficiently. Looking at the contents pages, the index, headings and subheadings first will help you to identify sections to read that are relevant to your essay question. This should reduce the amount of overall time you need to read a text.

Skimming. The aim of this reading strategy is not to read all the words but to get an overview of the author’s main points, for example by noticing words or phrases around the beginning or ends of paragraphs, rather than searching for answers to specific questions.

5. Note taking

In the reading part, when taking notes, it is advisable to follow these principles:

• Ensure your notes are brief, precise and clear so you can keep referring back to them.
• Add page numbers where possible, so you can go back to the idea or evidence in the text easily.
• Leave wide margins and spaces where possible between points so you can add more notes later as you increase your knowledge of the texts.
• Use arrows, or any other symbols as needed, to make connections between the texts.

6. Search Plan (※)

Here are some steps involved in planning an effective search for information in lib.

5 steps to effective library research - LibrarySkills@UCL: Library skills essentials - LibGuides at University College London, Global

6.1 Plan you search

Before you start a thorough search for information to inform your assignment or research study, you should first ensure you have enough background information about your topic

See => Text Types

Understanding the nature of your search

Consider the task ahead of you:

• If working on an assignment, consider what you have been asked to do, what types of information will be appropriate to inform the assignment, and how extensive your search should be to retrieve enough information for the task.
• If working on independent research it’s likely that you will want to do a more extensive search and may wish to feel confident that you have identified all relevant sources of information, for example, if you are undertaking a literature review or systematic review.

Know when to stop:

• If you have enough high quality material to inform your assignment, including some key sources, it may be time to stop searching for more.
• If you are no longer finding out anything new to inform your piece of work, it is probably not worth searching for more.
• If you are trying to identify all information on a topic and are confident that your search strategy will have retrieved everything relevant, there is no point introducing more search terms that might just retrieve references outside the scope of your search.

Scope Search

Using the search strategy to scope a search in Lib.

6.2 Define search terms

1. First, look at the title and identify the main keywords and concepts

   ‘To what extent can the speed of 5G be beneficial to the Internet of Things (IoT)’

   main concept: 5G, IoT

2. Try to come up with any synonyms, alternative or similar ways of referring to the keywords and concepts.

   5G = mobile network/ telecommunication protocols

   IoT = Internet of Things / wireless sensor networks / Industrial internet of things

3. Are there any relevant acronyms or abbreviations?

   IoT = Internet of Things
   Electronic cigarettes can be abbreviated to e-cigarettes.

4. Can any of the keywords be made plural

   For example, child and children.

5. Are there any narrower (more specific) or wider (more general) terms to consider?\

   For example, boy or girl are narrower terms than child.
   Bitcoin is a narrower term than cryptocurrency.

6. Some words are spelt differently in American and UK English. There may also be some variations in terminology used in different cultures or countries.

   For example, centre (UK) and center (US)
   For example, physiotherapy (UK) and physical therapy (US)

6.3 Search techniques

Search Tools

• Specific Fields

  • Default is Topic
  • Subject headings
  • Title only, author only,… keywords only

• Wild cards: 通配符

  • ? : means “exactly one unknown chars”
  • * : asterisk means “zero or more unknown chars”

  Comput* = means Computer, Computing

• Phrase Search

  Using qutation “” marks:

  “wind power”

• Boolean Operators

  AND
  OR
  NOT

• Using the parentheses ()to understand the searhc logic

  (A OR B) AND C

7. Explore connections between texts

When reading multiple texts on the same theme, you will notice connections between the texts. Different writers may mention the same topics, express similar or conflicting positions, or draw on similar or conflicting evidence to support their arguments.

When you read an academic text, it is important to ask yourself how it connects to what you have already read. Exploring connections across a range of texts will help you progress to fully understanding the theme.

Ⅱ. Academic Writing

1. Definition Writing

Definitions often contain three key elements:

• The term being defined
• A general class or category to which the term belongs - often this is a general noun
• Detail that distinguishes the term from other members of the same class

Some examples:

Definition 1 – Public Policy example

We update past work on the democratic deficit, defined as incongruence between majority public preference and public policy in the American states.
Hare, C., & Monogan, J.E. (2018). ‘The democratic deficit on salient issues: immigration and healthcare in the states’, Journal of Public Policy, pp.1-28.

Term: the democratic deficit

Class or category: incongruence

Detail: between majority public preference and public policy in the American states

2. Essay Questions

key features (4):

• Theme - the general theme of the essay.
• Scope - the primary focus, or aspects, of your essay within the broader theme
• Task - words or phrases that tell you what to do to answer the question.
• Information Needed

Some Example:

Remote trials: Evaluating the impact of videoconferencing trial on fairness.

What is the general theme?
–Remote trials

What the scope of the essay?
–Videoconferencing and fairness in trials

What is the task?
–Evaluating whether fairness can be acheived in virtual trials

What information do you think you will need to find to answer the question?
–An example might be specific evidence from online trials.

3. Four types of Writing Essay Structure

• Compare and contrast (※)

  This kind of writing encourages you to identify similarities and differences in separate styles, approaches, subjects, or works in support of a thesis position on the significance of these similarities and differences. With the Anthropocene as a theme, you might try to explain why two countries have very different approaches to tackling the problem.

• Discursive writing 散文

  In this kind of writing, you will discuss the various stances around a particular theme. This is usually done by providing evidence that supports your thesis, as well as investigating and challenging alternate points of view. With the Anthropocene as a theme, you might investigate different claims about how it impacts your discipline.

• Cause and Effect (※)

  This kind of writing is concerned with the forces of change and the impacts of certain events or processes. Within the theme of the Anthropocene, an essay in this style might investigate what factors have led to climate change and then discuss its impacts, developing a thesis position on, for example, which the most significant factor or impact is.

• Situation, Problem, Solution, and Evaluation (SPSE)(※)

  This kind of writing is usually referred to through its initial letters. The structure is quite rigid, but it allows for a thorough investigation of an issue. With the Anthropocene as a theme, you might investigate the impacts of climate change and then evaluate an adaptation strategy to develop a thesis position on its effectiveness.

4. Critical Thinking when Writing

Critical engagement
Critical thinking is a key part of university study, particularly at more advanced levels. Central to this is how you respond to the texts you read and information you receive. Do you just absorb other people’s claims and findings passively, without questioning them? Or do you treat those claims and findings with caution and think of reasons why they could be accepted or challenged?

• Criticality: the consideration and evaluation of more than one position in relation to a question or issue.
• Identify where ideas in these texts are similar and support each other to provide a strong weight of evidence. You will find that in some issues in your discipline, scholars have reached a broad consensus (=agreement). In a typical degree programme, your tutors will expect you to show that you are aware of areas of consensus, or general agreement in your field.
• Identify areas where the texts differ. This might be on the suggested approach in response to an issue, or different views on how serious a situation is. It is often areas of difference that are most useful for academic work, because you as the writer will decide whether to give weight to one point of view over another and make judgements about which ideas are the most convincing.

In general, finding connections, similarities, and the differences between authors and papers.

Using a table show how

5. Developing your position

Position refers to your stance in relation to the question or issue. In an essay, the position should be clear across the essay, from the introduction, through the main body, to the conclusion.

Your position should be developed through analysis and discussion and supported through evaluation of ideas from relevant source texts.

Some good examples:

Essay Question

-To what extent can renewable energy mitigate the effects of climate change?

Position 1: Renewable energy options such as wind power can make a significant contribution to mitigating climate change, but only if they are accompanied by a broader range of measures, for example technical and institutional interventions to assure energy supply reliability.

6. Synthesis (※)

Synthesis = connectivity

Synthesis is when a writer combines multiple sources on an issue and shows the relationships and links between them to the reader.

• Combine factual information from multiple sources, often to build up a background picture of an issue or establish a definition.
• Integrate and evaluate multiple points of view.
• Compare and contrast ideas and positions from sources, highlighting similarities or differences.
• Show chronological relationships (such as timelines) or common themes between sources.

One useful source of language for synthesis is the University of Manchester Academic Phrasebank.

Language/signal phrases

• Source A asserts that… Source B agrees when he or she states…
• According to both A & B…
• The combined conclusions of sources B & C seem to indicate that…
• The evidence shows that…
• Source C makes a convincing case when she argues…
• Source A asserts that…Yet Source B offers a different perspective by…
• Source C & B would likely disagree regarding…
• Synthes is that indicates agreement/support:
• I agree with Source A’s conclusion that…
• Source B is correct that…
• Synthesis that indicates disagreement/conflict:
• My view, however, contrary to what Source A has argued, is…
• I argue that X & Y are the best solution, though Source B offers a different option.
• In contrast, I would like to offer some objections to the opinions expressed by source C…
• While source A makes an intriguing argument, I would disagree…

synthesise different sources

• “Moreover, …”,

• "This conclusion was fully confirmed by… "

• “More recently, Sutton and Dibb (73) estimated that…”

• However… as well…

Agreement & Disagreement

• Similarly, Lin et al. (2017) claim that …
• These results were confirmed by Rossi (1996), who found that …
• In a similar vein, Kuznetsov (2005) proposes that …
• This view is supported by Tanaka (2018), who argues that …
• A broader perspective has been adopted by Smith (2013) who argues that …
• Almost every paper that has been written on X includes a section relating to …

Disagreement

• In contrast to Cortez, Park (2016) argues that …
• On the other hand, a study by Smith (2012) found that …
• Gardner (2013), however, questions these conclusions, noting that…
• Conversely, research by Naidu (2007) found no significant differences between …

Numbered lists

This could be used in the paragraph writing. Show a basic logic flow of the writing.

• First, second, third, …
• Firstly, secondly, thirdly,
• First, Second, Finally,
• Initially, Second, Third
• (In conclusion) Third = Finally

Cohesion and Coherency

Cohesion = 衔接 ；Coherency = 连贯

Cohesion is a surface feature of texts, independent of the reader.
Coherence, on the other hand, results from the interaction between the reader and the text.

Cohesion 衔接

从三个方面实现：词汇，语法，修辞

• 词汇

  • direct repetition, word families, synonyms and antonyms (同义词和反义词)

  • words from the same semantic field, lexical chains and lists

  • substitution with one/ones (使用one、ones替换noun或noun phrases不可数名词和名词短语)

• 语法(grammatical)

  • reference: pronouns, articles … + nominalization（名词化）
  • conjuncts (also called linkers)句内but,so,or,because或句间(顺序first/to begin with/lastly、递进what’s more/furthermore、让步however/in spite of/on the other hand)
  • comparatives 比较级
  • substitution of clause elements using so, not, do/does/did, etc
  • ellipsis of clause elements （省略，留白？）
  • tense

  Nouns that are typically used to ‘nominalize’ actions and events include situation, process, way, idea, theory and viewpoint. It is used to refer to what has been said or written. e.g. explanation, criticism, proposal, suggestion.

• 修辞(rhetorical)

  主要是question-answer

Coherency 连贯

从micro和macro两个层面来实现

Micro层面

指句子与句子层面。Given information + new information 这个信息结构来摆放。另一种方式是nominalization来实现coherence，除了与cohesion相同，用于概括前面的信息，也可以用于预期后面的信息，完成文本内容的推进(evolve the argument of the text).

e.g. Each parent passes on certain characteristics to its offspring. This process is called heredity. Heredity works in an amazing way.

Macro层面

macro是指topical coherence.具体实现方式：

1. 话题词汇topic-carrying words，主要是名词.
2. internal patterning 由cohesion的信息结构放置延伸而来，不再是句间，而是长文本内部。
3. 建立macro script，符合typical/conventional text type的安排，如叙述类时间先后顺序、新闻类结果-细节-评论等，让文本符合读者认知预期。

Reporting verbs = Hedging

Reporting verbs are very common in academic writing. The choice of verb, and how forceful it is, can provide useful information about the writer’s attitude to the source material.

Verbs: Strong – Neutral – Weak.

Recognising argument – Move analysis

One way to analyse a writer’s argument is by using move analysis. Writers build their arguments through a series of ‘moves’.

A ‘move’ is a broad unit of text which performs a specific communicative function. Some common moves in academic arguments include:

• stating the main claim
• presenting empirical evidence
• evaluating the evidence
• stating the problem
• evaluating the current response
• proposing the solution
• qualifying the solution / criticizing the solution

7. Paragraph Writing

A good main body paragraph will meet the following criteria:

• It will support a single claim or key idea from the writer’s position.
• It will state the key idea clearly at the start of the paragraph.
• The claim will be supported and developed through evidence from the source texts.
• The evidence will come from multiple sources, demonstrating synthesis.

8. Proofreading

Proofreading involves scanning your work for surface errors, such as spelling and grammar mistakes. You should also check your academic style.

Ⅲ. Reading Unit - Course

The Anthropocene

Definition:

• The Anthropocene

  Final definition:

  The Anthropocene represents a segment of the earth’s timeline which people have caused a cascade of effects such as environment and climate that have altered something in earth.

  One-Sentence

  The term Anthropocene indicates a new geological age where human actions have the dominant influence on climate and the environment.

• Definition of the Adapting and mitigation 适应/缓和

  Adaptation: Adaptation (term) can be defined as a strategy to adjust to new environment conditions (class or category) in order to either reduce or prevent damage and losses, or to take advantage of these new climatic conditions. (detail)

  Mitigation: Mitigation (term) refers to human interventions aims to reducing the impacts of climate change (class or category) as insurance against the dangers of environmental disasters. (detail)

Essay Question

To what extent do adaptation strategies address the global health threats posed by climate change?

• Theme - Climate change/ The Anthropocene
• Scope - Adaptation strategies and how effectively they protect human health
• Task - Evaluate adaptation strategies
• Information needed - What adaptation strategies are in place and how effective they are in terms of protecting human health. Investigate some of the advantages, as well as potential limitations.

Critical Thinking

The connections - I think 4 texts have the same structure and logic: From defining the climate change impacts to what can we do to adaptation. The term is at the same level. 

 

The difference – The scopes are different. For example, the OECD focus on the economics impacts in different countries as the Hancock focus on the Health System. 

Drafting a position

Adaptation strategies could make significant contribution to the global health. However, it is costly and difficult approach. But combining with some measurable tools as well as approaches, we can better understand the potential impact of specific strategies under different scene. 

Essay Plan

Section	Notes	Evidence
Introduction
Main body Section 1
Main body Section 2
Main body Section 3
Conclusion

Paragraph writing

Claims:
Combining with some measurable tools as well as approaches, we can better understand the potential impact of specific strategies under different scene/conditions.  


Indeed, it is better to combine with measurable tools as well as approaches to help us better understand the potential impact of specific adaptation strategies under different conditions. Laukkonen et al. (2009, p291) discuss different potential tools and methodologies which considered the Adaptation as only one part of these framework. Those tools might help the sustainable development to be built in a coherent way. The OCED(2015) also report four key tools which could be used to monitor and evaluate the Adaptation. For example, Climate change risk and vulnerability assessments could give actors a referenced baseline, which would use for reviewing the adaptation strategies. 

Ⅳ. Food Security

1. Content

Definition of Food Security

Food security is defined as a behavior that enable people to have regular access to nutritious and sufficient food, which could be related to climate and economy.

Reflective writing review

Common Model of Reflection

Description: What?

Look back at something happened (often an event but could be an idea, a text, an object or similar).

• What happened?
• What is being examined

Interpretation: So what?

Analyse the event. Think about it carefully and try to explain it from different perspectives.

• What is important, interesting, useful, or relevant about this?
• How can it be explained?

Outcome: Now what?

Think carefully about what this means for your personal development

• What have I learnt from this?
• What will it mean for my future?
• What will I do as a result of this?

Response

Outcome:

• For the next assignment, I will try to write more notes as well as the annotation in the pdf file.
• Make a more specific plan.
• Try to use more synthesis and using more linking languages
• Write the introduction much shorter and just make a clear background for the knowledge.
• Write the conclusion much longer to give a clear response and careful evaluation.
• Using more academic style and check the grammar more carefully.
• Use more forms of referencing. (In the begin, in the end)

Ⅴ. Open Book Exam

Suggested outline of 8 hours:

• Around 2 hours planning and adapting notes for the question. Use the source texts to come to an informed position. Plan your essay based on your position.
• Around 3 hours for writing, revising and rewriting. Check your position is clearly supported by your body paragraphs.
• Around 1 hour for proofreading and checking for errors.
• Around 1 hour for a longer break, plus shorter breaks throughout.

Introduction

1. Background information or historical context
2. An explanation of why the topic is important
3. Definitions of key terms
4. An outline of the essay structure
5. A statement of the writer’s position

An explanation of why the topic is important

• In recent decades, … has become an issue of global significance.
• … is one of the major challenges of our time.
• … is a global and pressing issue.
• In the current globalized economy, there is an urgent need to address the issue of…

Background information or historical context

• Research suggests that problem is not one of…, but…
• It is evident that the basic problem is one of…
• A growing body of research suggests that…
• A recent report by… estimates that…

Definitions of key terms

• … defined as…
• … meaning that…
• In this essay, … will be defined as…
• This essay will adopt the definition used by…, which states that…

An outline of the essay structure and a statement of the writer’s position

• This essay will begin by examining… before demonstrating that…
• This essay will first discuss… before examining…
• It will be argued that…
• The aim of this essay is to explore… and demonstrate that…

conclusion

1. A restatement of the writer’s position
2. A summary of the main claims
3. References to the future
4. Recommendations
5. Limitations of the essay

A restatement of the writer’s position

• In conclusion, …
• In particular, … has a direct impact on…
• To conclude, this essay has attempted to demonstrate that…
• The evidence suggests that…

A summary of the main claims

• To summarise, …
• This essay has discussed the reasons for…
• The critical issue appears to be…
• While…,

References to the future

• This could lead to…
• It is likely that, in the future…
• …to lessen the future impact of… on…
• Unless greater efforts are made to… it is unlikely that…

Recommendations

• Action at the national and international level, including…, is required to…
• There is, therefore, a definite need for…
• A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to…
• Further research into… is needed to inform…

Limitations of the essay

• This paper has only examined…
• The scope of this paper was limited in terms of…
• Due to limitations of space, this paper was unable to examine…

Ⅵ. Reference

ReadingLists@UCL | Library Services - UCL – University College London

5 steps to effective library research - LibrarySkills@UCL: Library skills essentials - LibGuides at University College London, Global

Literature searching - Support for dissertations and research projects - LibGuides at University College London, Global (ucl.ac.uk)