本文为《Linear algebra and its applications》的读书笔记
目录
Coordinate systems
- An important reason for specifying a basis B \mathcal B B for a vector space V V V is to impose a “coordinate system” on V V V .
- This section will show that if B \mathcal B B contains n n n vectors, then the coordinate system will make V V V act like R n \mathbb R^n Rn. If V V V is already R n \mathbb R^n Rn itself, then B \mathcal B B will determine a coordinate system that gives a new “view” of V V V.
- The existence of coordinate systems rests on the following fundamental result.
PROOF
- Since
B
\mathcal B
B spans
V
V
V, there exist scalars such that (1) holds. Suppose
x
\boldsymbol x
x also has the representation
Then, subtracting, we have
Since B \mathcal B B is linearly independent, the weights must all be zero. That is, c j = d j c_j = d_j cj=dj for 1 ≤ j ≤ n 1 \leq j \leq n 1≤j≤n.
Be careful not to use a matrix in the proof. The vectors v 1 , . . . , v n \boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_n v1,...,vn cannot be arranged as the columns of an ordinary matrix when the vectors are in some abstract vector space.
- If
c
1
,
.
.
.
,
c
n
c_1,..., c_n
c1,...,cn are the
B
\mathcal B
B-coordinates of
x
\boldsymbol x
x, then the vector in
R
n
\mathbb R^n
Rn
[ x ] B = [ c 1 ⋮ c n ] [\boldsymbol{x}]_{\mathcal{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{r} c_{1} \\ \vdots \\ c_{n} \end{array}\right] [x]B=⎣⎢⎡c1⋮cn⎦⎥⎤is the coordinate vector of x \boldsymbol x x (relative to B \mathcal B B, or the B \mathcal B B-coordinate vector of x \boldsymbol x x). The mapping x ↦ [ x ] B \boldsymbol x \mapsto [\boldsymbol x]_{\mathcal B} x↦[x]B is the coordinate mapping (determined by B \mathcal B B).
A Graphical Interpretation of Coordinates
- A coordinate system on a set consists of a one-to-one mapping of the points in the set into
R
n
\mathbb R^n
Rn.
- For example, ordinary graph paper provides a coordinate system for the plane when one selects perpendicular axes and a unit of measurement on each axis.
- Figure 1 shows the vector
x
=
[
1
6
]
\boldsymbol x=\begin{bmatrix}1\\6\end{bmatrix}
x=[16]. The coordinates 1 and 6 give the location of
x
\boldsymbol x
x relative to the standard basis
{
e
1
,
e
2
}
\{\boldsymbol e_1, \boldsymbol e_2\}
{e1,e2}: 1 unit in the
e
1
\boldsymbol e_1
e1 direction and 6 units in the e2 direction.
- Figure 2 shows the vector
x
\boldsymbol x
x from Figure 1. However, the standard coordinate grid was erased and replaced by a grid especially adapted to the basis
B
=
{
[
1
0
]
,
[
1
2
]
}
\mathcal B=\{\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix},\begin{bmatrix}1\\2\end{bmatrix}\}
B={[10],[12]}. The coordinate vector
[
x
]
B
=
[
−
2
3
]
[\boldsymbol x]_{\mathcal B}=\begin{bmatrix}-2\\3\end{bmatrix}
[x]B=[−23] gives the location of
x
\boldsymbol x
x on this new coordinate system: -2 units in the
b
1
\boldsymbol b_1
b1 direction and 3 units in the
b
2
\boldsymbol b_2
b2 direction.
Coordinates in R n \mathbb R^n Rn
- When a basis B \mathcal B B for R n \mathbb R^n Rn is fixed, the B \mathcal B B-coordinate vector of a specified x \boldsymbol x x is easily found.
- Let
P B = [ b 1 b 2 ⋯ b n ] P_{\mathcal{B}}=\left[\begin{array}{llll} \mathbf{b}_{1} & \mathbf{b}_{2} & \cdots & \mathbf{b}_{n} \end{array}\right] PB=[b1b2⋯bn]Then the vector equation
x = c 1 b 1 + c 2 b 2 + ⋯ + c n b n \mathbf{x}=c_{1} \mathbf{b}_{1}+c_{2} \mathbf{b}_{2}+\cdots+c_{n} \mathbf{b}_{n} x=c1b1+c2b2+⋯+cnbnis equivalent to
x = P B [ x ] B \mathbf{x}=P_{\mathcal{B}}[\mathbf{x}]_{\mathcal{B}} x=PB[x]B - We call
P
B
P_B
PB the change-of-coordinates matrix (坐标变换矩阵) from
B
\mathcal B
B to the standard basis in
R
n
\mathbb R^n
Rn.
- Left-multiplication by P B P_B PB transforms the coordinate vector [ x ] B [\boldsymbol x]_{\mathcal B} [x]B into x \boldsymbol x x.
- Since the columns of
P
B
P_B
PB form a basis for
R
n
\mathbb R^n
Rn,
P
B
P_B
PB is invertible. Left-multiplication by
P
B
−
1
P_B^{-1}
PB−1 converts
x
\boldsymbol x
x into its
B
\mathcal B
B-coordinate vector:
P B − 1 x = [ x ] B P_{\mathcal{B}}^{-1} \mathbf{x}=[\mathbf{x}]_{\mathcal{B}} PB−1x=[x]BThe correspondence x ↦ [ x ] B \boldsymbol x\mapsto [\boldsymbol x]_{\mathcal B} x↦[x]B, produced here by P B − 1 P_B^{-1} PB−1, is the coordinate mapping mentioned earlier. Since P B − 1 P_B^{-1} PB−1 is an invertible matrix, the coordinate mapping is a one-to-one linear transformation from R n \mathbb R^n Rn onto R n \mathbb R^n Rn. This property of the coordinate mapping is also true in a general vector space that has a basis.
The Coordinate Mapping
- Choosing a basis
B
=
{
b
1
,
.
.
.
,
b
n
}
\mathcal B = \{\boldsymbol b_1,..., \boldsymbol b_n\}
B={b1,...,bn} for a vector space
V
V
V introduces a coordinate system in
V
V
V . The coordinate mapping
x
↦
[
x
]
B
\boldsymbol x\mapsto [\boldsymbol x]_{\mathcal B}
x↦[x]B connects the possibly unfamiliar space
V
V
V to the familiar space
R
n
\mathbb R^n
Rn. See Figure 5.
PROOF
- Take two typical vectors in
V
V
V , say,
Then, using vector operations,
It follows that
If r r r is any scalar, then
So
Thus the coordinate mapping is a linear transformation. It is easy to show that the coordinate mapping is one-to-one and maps V V V onto R n \mathbb R^n Rn.
- The linearity of the coordinate mapping extends to linear combination:
The coordinate mapping in Theorem 8 is an important example of an isomorphism (同构) from V V V onto R n \mathbb R^n Rn. - In particular, any real vector space with a basis of
n
n
n vectors is indistinguishable from
R
n
\mathbb R^n
Rn.
EXAMPLE 5
- Let
B
\mathcal B
B be the standard basis of the space
P
3
\mathbb P^3
P3 of polynomials; that is, let
B
=
{
1
,
t
,
t
2
,
t
3
}
\mathcal B =\{1, t, t^2, t^3\}
B={1,t,t2,t3}. A typical element
p
\boldsymbol p
p of
P
3
\mathbb P^3
P3 has the form
Thus the coordinate mapping p ↦ [ p ] B \boldsymbol p \mapsto [\boldsymbol p]_{\mathcal B} p↦[p]B is an isomorphism from P 3 \mathbb P^3 P3 onto R 4 \mathbb R^4 R4. All vector space operations in P 3 \mathbb P^3 P3 correspond to operations in R 4 \mathbb R^4 R4.